
Class / (g tO¥'i i 
Book. - X ^ /f J ^ 

G)iPgllt]N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



The Indiana State Board of Education 

EDUCATIONAL BULLETIN g. -nir^ \% j 

Vocational Series No. 15 Indiana Survey Series No. 3 



REPORT OF THE 

RICHMOND, INDIANA, SURVEY FOR 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



Conducted Co-operatively by the Indiana State Board of 
Education, the Board of Education of Rich- 
mond and Indiana University 



ROBERT J.^EONARD, Director 
Professor Vocational Education, Indiana Universit}^ 



INDIANAPOLIS 
December 1, 1916 

Monograph, 



LC /0 + 6 



Copyright 1916 
By Robert J. Leonard 



/' 



FEB 21 1917 

©aA457169 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
VOCATIONAL DIVISION 



CHARLES A. GREATHOUSE 

Slate Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



W. F BOOK 

Deputy Superintendi nt in Charge of Vocational Education. 



Z. M. SMITH 

Special Agent in Charge of Agricultural Education. 



ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR 

Special Agent to Supervise Domestic Science. 



CHARLES H. WINSLOW 

Special Agent for Vocational Research. 



Approved by 
State Board of Education 



FORT WAYNE PRINTING COMPANY 

CONTRACTORS FOR STATE PRINTING AND BINDING 

1907 



FOREWORD TO SURVEY SERIES 

In February, 1913, the Indiana Vocational Education Law — 
recommended by the teachers and superintendents of the state 
and by the Special Commission on Industrial Education ap- 
pointed two years previously to investigate Indiana's need for 
vocational training — was passed by the Legislature. A Deputy 
State Superintendent in charge of vocational work, and a Special 
Agent to supervise agricultural education were appointed by the 
State Board of Education the following May. As the sections 
of the law providing for state-aided vocational schools did not go 
into effect until September of the following year, the first year was 
devoted to a study of the problems involved in the organization 
and conduct of the special vocational schools to be established, and 
to developing the instruction in industrial arts, agriculture and 
domestic science, which the law prescribed should be taught in 
all the schools of the state as a part of their regular course of 
instruction. 

During the first year vocational schools in all parts of the 
country were visited and the experiments made in vocational 
education in different cities and states carefully studied. One 
conviction which this study of the problem left in our minds was 
that most of the cities and states which had organized vocational 
instruction were, in reality, not stressing the occupations in which 
the majority of their people were engaged and that all the voca- 
tional schools visited seemed more or less handicapped by the fact 
that no careful analyses of the major industries had been made 
to provide the data needed to make an effective course of study. 
We also became keenly aware of the fact that the Indiana situa- 
tion presented some problems that were distinctly unique and new. 
In other words, we began to see that a careful and systematic 
study of Indiana's specific needs for vocational training would have 
to be made and the more important industries of the state analyzed 
before the problem of providing vocational training for the people 
of the state could be effectively and economically solved. As a 
result steps were immediately taken and plans formulated for 
making such vocational surveys. 

In February, 1914, W. L. Bryan, President of Indiana Univer- 
sity, stated to Superintendent Chas. A. Greathouse and the State 
Director of Vocational Education that Indiana University would 
be willing to co-operate with the state in the development of 

(V) 



the vocational work by providing, free of charge to the state, 
for at least one 3^ear, the services of an expert in Industrial Educa- 
tion, whom he desired should work on such problems or tasks as 
the State Board of Education might direct. In September, 1914, 
R. J. Leonard came to Indiana University as Professor of Voca- 
tional Education and, in conformity with President Bryan's plan, 
was loaned to the state for the year. During this year Professor 
Leonard, working in co-operation with the Department, made a 
study of the people of Indiana and their occupations, gathering 
and organizing all the facts which would indicate where the em- 
phasis in developing vocational education in the state should be 
laid. This study was published by Indiana University in February, 
1915, and constitutes the first Indiana study for purposes of voca- 
tional education. In December, 1914, the State Director 
of Vocational Education made arrangements with the Superin- 
tendent and Board of Education at Hammond, to have Professer 
Leonard make a detailed study of the industries and schools of 
Hammond, with a view of ascertaining the facts pertaining to the 
industries and the schools, which would enable us to make wise 
recommendations for developing vocational instruction in Ham- 
mond. This study was published by the Hammond Board of 
Education in April, 1915, and constitutes the second study for 
purposes of vocational education made in the state. 

Other minor studies of the needs of teachers of the practical 
arts subject in the regular schools and the need for vocational 
instruction in particular communities were made by the State 
Department during this yesii\ Indiana University also provided 
the full-time service of one woman (paying all her salary and travel- 
ing expenses) to help supervise the domestic science work given 
in the regular schools. The Indiana State Normal School did the 
same. Purdue University provided the services of two women 
to help supervise the work in domestic science and three men to 
help supervise the work in agriculture. 

In April, 1915, Professor R. J. Leonard was invited to confer 
with Superintendent J. T. Giles and the Board of Education of 
Richmond, Indiana, relative to making a vocational survey of 
Richmond. On May 6, 1915, Superintendent Giles was author- 
ized by the Richmond Board of Education to extend an invi- 
tation to Professor Leonard to direct a vocational survey for that 
city, and preliminary arrangements for making the survey were made 
during May and June. In June, 1915, Mr. P. A. Reid, a member of the 

(vi) 



State Board of Education and also a member of the Richmond 
School Board asked the State Board of Education to co-operate 
in making the Richmond Survey, and urged that some financial 
aid be given for this work, explaining that unless such assistance 
could be given no adequate survey could be made. 

At the September meeting of the State Board of Education 
a tentative plan for making a number of typical state surveys 
for purposes of vocational education was presented to the State 
Board by W. F. Book, State Director of Vocational Education. 
By November 30th, a plan for conducting a joint survey at Rich- 
mond was agreed upon, $1,000 voted for the work and the State 
Director of Vocational Education instructed to draw up an agree- 
ment between the State Board of Education, Indiana University 
and the Board of Education of Richmond for making a joint 
vocational survey at Richmond. On December 9th, this agree- 
ment was ratified by the State Board of Education and the money 
appropriated for the Richmond Survey. 

This Survey was in charge of Professor R. J. Leonard and a Gen- 
eral Survey Committee specially provided for in the agreement made 
with Indiana University and the Board of Education of Richmond. 
To Professor Leonard who directed the work of the Richmond Sur- 
vey, to Indiana University, whose keen interest in the development 
of the vocational work throughout the state prompted it to con- 
tribute the services of the Director, and to the members of the 
<jeneral Survey Committee who gave so freely of their time and 
energy during the conduct of the Richmond Survey, the State 
Board of Education is deeply indebted for material assistance, 
expert service and a spirit of co-operation whose value to the state 
it would be hard to estimate. 

Before the arrangements for the Richmond Survey had been 
completed arrangements for making other vocational surveys 
had been made. On November 30, 1915, a tentative plan for 
making a survey of the city of Madison and Jefferson County, 
to be conducted jointly by the State Board of Education, the 
Madison City and Jefferson County Boards of Education and 
Hanover College were presented to the State Board by W. F. 
Book, State Director of Vocational Education. The general 
plan for conducting this survey was approved and the survey 
authorized. Money was also voted and Mr. Book was instructed 
to draw up an agreement for conducting this survey. 

On November 23rd, the Evansville Board of Education voted 
to invite the State Board of Education ''to make a survey of the 

(vii) 



City of Evansville, looking towards the establishment o,f a day 
vocational school." Preliminary arrangements for making this 
survey and for securing a suitable man to direct and carry out 
the state program for vocational research contemplated, were 
made during December. On January llth, 1916, the State Board 
of Education approved a tentative plan for conducting a survey 
of Evansville, and appropriated $2,800.00 for the work. The 
Board also instructed the State Director of Vocational Education 
to sign an agreement with the local Board of Education for mak- 
ing the Evansville Survey as soon as a suitable director had been 
secured. On January 27th, the State Board of Education, upon 
the recommendation of State Superintendent Chas. A. Great- 
house, and W. F. Book, State Director of Vocational Education, 
elected Mr. Chas. H. Winslow as State Director of Vocational 
Research, and directed Mr. Winslow and Mr. Book to work out 
and report a plan for conducting the various state surveys con- 
templated. This plan not only defined the authority and duties 
of the State Board of Education, the State Director of Vocational 
Education and State Director of Vocational Research, but also 
made provisions for the necessary administrative machinery, 
state and local, required to carry on all state vocational surveys. 
Among other things this plan provided for a permanent State 
Survey Committee, to have control of the several surveys to be 
made. This Committee was given authority to determine the 
method and scope of each survey and was charged with the duty 
of making complete and detailed recommendations to the state 
and local boards of education for organizing and developing voca- 
tional work in each community where a survey was to be made. 

The field work on the Evansville, Madison City and Jefferson 
County Surveys was done during the spring and early summer of 
1916. During May and June the State Director of Vocational 
Education, upon the invitation of Superintendent J. G. Collicott, 
made arrangements with the Indianapolis Board of School Com- 
missioners for making a vocational survey of Indianapolis. The 
agreement for conducting the Indianapolis survey was signed on 
June 20th, 1916, and the field work on the Indianapolis Survey 
})egun on July 5th. Reports on all these surveys will be published 
during the next three months by the State Board of Education. 

Co-operation of National Society for the Promotion of Indus- 
trial Education. — As soon as a state program for vocational re- 
search had been definitely planned and decided upon and a State 
Director for Vocational Research secured, the National Societ}'' 

(viii) 



for the Promotion of Industrial Education was invited to hold its 
Tenth Annual Meeting in Indianapolis, and urged to take a prom- 
inent part in making the Indiana surveys. The opportunity of 
considering at its next annual convention the problem of voca- 
tional training from a state angle and the opportunity of co- 
operating in a state survey caused the National Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial Education to decline the invitations 
extended to it by a number of other prominent cities throughout 
the country and to decide to hold its Tenth Annual Convention 
in Indianapolis. 

The Secretary of the National Society and two members of 
its Survey Committee, C. R. Richards and C. A. Prosser, were 
appointed on the Indiana State Survey Committee, Dr. Prosser 
being made Chairman of the Committee. In addition to the per- 
sonal service which these gentlemen have given, the National 
Society has contributed much expert advice and assistance by 
calling upon its entire membership for help. To the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, and to C. A. 
Prosser, Chairman of the State Survey Committee and C. R. 
Richards and Alvin E. Dodd, who have given so freely of their 
time and energy to the Indiana Surveys, the State Board of Educa- 
tion and the State of Indiana are deeply indebted for expert service 
in planning and helping direct the work of the Evansville, Madi- 
son and Indianapolis Surveys. We are also specially indebted 
to G. I. Christie, of Purdue University, and W. A. Millis, President 
of Hanover College, for their co-operation and personal service 
in conducting the Jefferson County Survey. Without their aid 
and assistance this survey could not have been made. Special 
acknowledgments are also due to all other members of our State 
Survey Committee, particularly to Mr. Chas. H. Winslow, State 
Director of Vocational Research, under whose wise leadership 
and personal direction the Madison, Evansville and Indianapolis 
Surveys were made. 

Purpose of the Indiana Surveys. — The aim of all these Indiana 
Surveys, as conceived by the Vocational Department and State 
Board of Education, was to ascertain from a study of the indus- 
tries of a particular community the facts that would be needed to 
outline an efficient and economic program of vocational train- 
ing for that community, and to ascertain from a study of the work 
being done in the public, private and parochial schools of the 
community how far the vocational needs of that community were 

(ix) 



already being met b}^ existing agencies. The ultimate purpose 
was to suggest a definite program for organizing and developing 
vocational education in the particular city or district covered by 
the surve5\ It is hoped that by selecting a number of typical 
communities throughout the state, some definite help might also 
be obtained for solving the problem of providing an efficient 
scheme of vocational training for the state as a whole. 

CHARLES A. GREATHOUSE, 

President Indiana State Board of Education. 

WILLIAM F. BOOK, 

State Director of Vocational Education. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



List of Tables 

List of Illustrations. 



PAGE 
X 

xi 



PART ONE 
The Survey and Richmond 

CHAPTER 

L The Survey 3 

II. The City of Richmond 15 



III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 



IX. 

X. 
XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 



PART TWO 
Occupational Information 

Overview of Industrial Employment 23 

Industrial Employment : Automobile Manufacturing 39 

Industrial Employment : Wire Fence Manufacturing 53 

Industrial Employment: Lawn Mower Manufacturing ... 67 
Industrial Employment : Agricultural Implement Manu- 
facturing 81 

Industrial Employment : Railroad Repairing, Machine 

Tool Manufacturing and Other 

Metal Industries 97 

Industrial Employment : Musical Instrument, Casket and 

Furniture Manufacturing ... . 131 

Industrial Employment : Job and Newspaper Printing. . . . 163 

Industrial Employment: Building Construction 177 

Industrial Employment: Underwear, Glove and Working- 
men's Wear Manufacturing. . . 193 
Industrial Employment: Ladies Tailoring, Dressmaking 

and General Sewing 233 

Industrial Employment: Dry Cleaning, Dyeing and Hat 

Cleaning 239 

Industrial Employment: The Laundry 257 

Overview of Commercial Employment 273 

Commercial Employment: Mercantile Traffic 277 

Commercial Employment: Mercantile Sales 307 

Commercial Employment: Telephone Service 369 

Commercial Employment: Office Service 385 

Household Employment: The Housewife 405 

Household Employment: The Graduate, Practical and 

Home Nurse 429 

Household Employment: Household Service 449 

Juvenile Employment 459 

Home and School Gardening 471 



(xi) 



PART THREE 

Present Provisions for Vocational Education and Survey Committee 
Recommendations 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. The Schools and Children of Richmond 503 

XXVII. Present Provisions for Industrial, Commercial and Household 

Art Instruction : 507 

XXVIII. Survey Committee Recommendations for Vocational Educa- 
tion, Subsequent Investigations and Legislation 545 

PART FOUR 
IMethods of the Survey 
XXIX. Methods of the Survev and Forms Used 569 



LIST OF TABLES 

NUMBER 

1. Growth of Richmond and Other Indiana Cities, 1900-1910 15 

2. Composition of Population of Richmond and Five Other Indiana 

Cities, 1910 . . . . ^ _ 16 

3. Illiteracy in Richmond and Other Indiana Cities in 1910 19 

4. Actual and Percentage of Increase of Workers in Manufacturing- 

Plants in Richmond and Other Indiana Cities, 1904-1909 23 

5. Percentage of Total Inhabitants Emploj^ed in Manufacturing 

Establishments in Richmond and Other Cities, Derived from 
Number in Industries in 1909 and Population in 1910 24 

6. Total Number of Workers Employed March 1, 1916, in Industries 

Analj^zed by the Survey. (Of&ee and Sales Force Excluded.) . . 25 

7. Place of Birth of 457 Workers in Manufacturing Establishments . . 27 

8. Age of 419 Workers in Manufacturing Establishments 28 

9. Conjugal Condition of 424 Workers in Manufacturing Establish- 

ments 29 

10. Schools Attended and Gra.de Completed by 377 Workers in Man- 

ufacturing Establishments 30 

1 1 . Age Upon Leaving School of 413 Workers in Manufacturing Estab- 

lishments 32 

12. Hours of Work on Week Daj^s and Saturdays of 423 Workers in 

Manufacturing Establishments 33 

13. Weekly Earnings of 278 Workers in Manufacturing Establish- 

ments 34 

14. Number of Years of Experience in Present Occupation of 416 

Workers in Manufacturing Establishments 35 

15. Number of Occupations Other than the Present Followed by 310 

'Workers in Manufacturing Establishments 36 

16. Number of Workers Among 124 Employed in Manufacturing 

Establishments Who Have Taken Specified Courses Since 
Leaving School 37 

(xii) 



NUMBER PAGE 

17. Number of Occupations Analyzed and Workers Employed in Com- 

mercial Pursuits Studied by the Survey 275 

18. Number of Families of Specified Size per Number of Rooms Oc- 

cupied 420 

19. Number of Families of Specified Type and Size 423 

20. Number of Families According to Type and Number of Rooms 

Occupied ' 423 

21. Number of Families According to Type of Family and Education 

of Housewife 424 

22. Occupations and Number Employed in Household Ser^dce. 450 

23. Number of Boys and Girls Leaving at Each Age and School Grade. 460 

24. Occupations of Fathers and Mothers of Permit Boys and Girls. . 461 

25. Vacant Lot and Back Yard Garden Space in Five Districts 478 

26. Occupation of Elementary School Children During Vacation and 

After School ^ 490 

27. Available Home Garden Space Reported by the Elementary 

School Children ! 492 

28. Number of Pupils Over, Normal and Under Age by Grade and Sex. 503 

29. Present Place in the Grades of 13 and 14 Year Old Boys and Girls. 504 

30. Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools 508, 509 

31. Fine Arts for Elementary Schools 510 

32. Number of Boys Taking Shop Courses Ha\dng Each Number of 

Credit Hours 518 

33. Number of Boys and Girls Taking Commercial Courses Having 

Each Number of Credit Hours 524 

34. Number of Semester Courses of Each Commercial Subject Taken 

by Eight Girls and Three Boys Not Going to College 525 

35. Number of Semester Coiu-ses of Each Commercial Subject Taken 

by Nine Girls and Nine Boys Going to College 527 

36. Number of Girls Taking Household xArts Courses Having Each 

Number of Credit Hours 531 

37. Night School Industrial Courses for Men 536, 537 

38. Night School Commercial Courses for Men and Women 538 

39. Night School Household Arts Courses for Women 539 

40. Night School General Courses for Men and Women 540, 541 

41. Night School Miscellaneous Courses for Men and Women 543 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

1. Transportation Map — Richmond and Vicinity 17 

2. Stripped of Body, Top and Fenders, the Modern Automobile is 

a Series of Mechanical Units, aU Perfectly Co-ordinated 41 

3. Beauty of Design, as Well as Mechanical Perfection, is Essential 

in Automobile Construction 41 

4. Strand and Stay Wires Entering the Loom. The Streaked Line 

Cutting the Picture is the Stay Wire 54 

5. Wire Being Drawn into the Fence Weaving Machine. The Hol- 

low Drum at the Rear Bears Strand Wire; the Reels, Upright 

and Stay Wire 55 

6. The Completed Wire Fence Passing Off the "Pull Up" Drum. . . 56 

(xiii) 



NUMBER PAGE 

7. Looping and Twisting. Starting from the Base of the Picture at 

the Center, Note the Various Stages in the Twisting Process. . 57 

8. Reeling the Woven Wire 58 

9. The Construction of a Lawn Mower at First Glance Appears Very 

Simple, But on Analysis is Found To Be Made Up of a Large 
Number of Parts, Each of Which Performs a Certain Definite 

Service 68 

10. One of the Richmond Made Grain Drills in Use on the Level Fields 

of the Northwest 82 

11. Erecting Silage Cutters 84 

12. A Universally Adjustable Multiple Drill with Twelve One and 

One-quarter-inch Spindles 100 

13. A Universally Adjustable Multiple Drill with Direct Connected 

Motor 102 

14. A Modern Foundry Building Avith Adequate Provision for Venti- 

lation 106 

15. The Interior of a Modern Moulding Room Showing Adequate 

Provisions for Light and Ventilation 108 

16. A Jacobian Grand Piano. . 132 

17. An Upright Piano of Substantial Design. The Product of Scores 

of Workers from a Great Variety of Trades 133 

18. The Phonograph — The Latest and Most Perfect Sound Reproduc- 

ing Instrument. Its Perfection Has Involved the Use of New 

Materials and the Development of New Processes and Trades . . 135 

19. Double Automatic Cut-off Saws 139 

20. Edge Glueing Machine 143 

21. Ivory Laying Machines 151 

22. Key Scraping 152 

23. Key Sa^vdng 153 

24. Regulating Piano Action 155 

25. Inspecting Piano Player Mechanism 156 

26. Grand Piano Flj- Finishing 157 

27. Regulating Piano Action 157 

28. Installing Piano Action 158 

29. Marking Music Rolls 159 

30. Cutting Master Patterns for Music Rolls 160 

31. Music Roll Perforating Machines 161 

32. Glueing Bellows for Player Pianos 161 

33. A Modern, Well Lighted, Newspaper Composing Room 164 

34. A Newspaper Stereotyping Room 164 

35. A Modern Newspaper Press 166 

36. The Oldest School House in Wayne County. x\n Interesting 

Example of Building Construction of Almost a Century Ago, 

When Specialized Building Trades Were Unknown 178 

37. A Modern Building, of Which This Richmond School is an Ex- 

ample, Requires Workers from a Great Variety of the Building 

and Allied Trades 179 

38. Power Sewing Machine Operating in a Glove Factory 195 

39. Washing Machines, Extractor and Gasoline Pump 240 

40. A Modern Steam Press 240 

(xiv) 



NUMBER PAGE 

41. Dry Cleaning Must Be Carried on in a Fire Proof Building as 

Illustrated by the Above Concrete Structure 241 

42. Modern Auto Busses for Freight and Passengers Radiate from 

Richmond to All Parts of Wayne County 273 

43. The Modern Telephone Office is Equipped with All Modern Con- 

veniences. Note the Automatic Telephone in the Center of 

the Picture 369 

44. The Operating Room with the Automatic System Only. Six 

Operators are Required. They Put Through Farm and Long 
Distance Calls 372 

45. With the Automatic Telephone System the Connections are. Made 

Without an Operator, as Seen to the Right in the Picture Above. 382 

46. A Row of Substantial Residences Which Perennials Would 

Beautify 472 

47. Residences Are Made More Attractive by Proper Landscape 

Gardening 473 

48. A Successful Home Garden in Richmond 476 

49. 1915 Map of Richmond, Indiana 477 

50. A Poorly Kept Alley 487 

51. A Well Kept Richmond Alley. This is a Credit to the City 488 



PART ONE 
THE SURVEY AND RICHMOND 



2—5463 



CHAPTER I 



THE SURVEY 

Reasons for the Survey 

Evolution of the Richmond Schools. — For the past twenty years 
the foremost thought of those interested in pubHc education has 
been to so organize the schools and courses of study as to best 
aid the individual in successfully meeting the varying needs of 
community life. Those charged with the administration of the 
Richmond Schools have been conscious of the social and indus- 
trial changes in the community which have required a readjust- 
ment of the city schools in order that they might meet the needs 
of all the children of the city. 

From 1855, when the first free public schools were opened in 
the city of Richmond, the school system has developed, stage 
by stage, into a complex organization with its various types of 
schools and departments all designed to provide the best possible 
training for living for each child of the community. To the tra- 
ditional subjects of study in the elementary schools and the high 
school were added drawing in 1885, manual training in 1900 and 
later domestic science and domestic art. 

The life career motive.- — As early as 1912, there are indications 
noted from the printed course of study that one of the principal 
determinants in the education of the child beyond the sixth grade 
is the life career. At this date all seventh and eighth grade pupils 
in the entire city were grouped in a single school organized on the 
departmental plan, with special teachers for each of the different 
subjects; promotions were made by subject, and pupils elected 
either a language or work in the industrial arts dependent upon 
ability and interest. The high school course was also differen- 
tiated on the basis of interest and career, pupils being permitted 
to choose the academic, industrial or commercial course. To these 
the household arts course was added, and, during subsequent 
years, the point of view became clarified that the life career mo- 
tive must be dominant during the period of secondary education. 

(3) 



4 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

Vocational law stimulates interest. — With the passing of the 
Vocational Education Law of 1913, great impetus was given to the 
idea of education for vocation in Richmond. With the recon- 
stitution of the State Board of Education, authorized by this 
law, Governor Ralston appointed Mr. P. A. Reid, secretary of the 
ElliottReid Company of Richmond, as a member of this board 
on the basis of his interest in vocational education. Being also 
a member of the Richmond Board of Education, Mr. Reid's interest 
and enthusiasm for the newer types of education was directly 
focused upon the Richmond situation. Under the sympathetic 
leadership of Superintendent J. T. Giles, supported by the 
board of education, Richmond was brought to the conscious 
realization that the schools bore a direct responsibility for the 
training of boys and girls for industry, commerce, agriculture, 
and the household arts which, as yet had been but partly dis- 
charged. The success of the high school departmental plan, 
whereby courses might be elected on the basis of future vocation 
regardless of traditional requirements for secondary education, 
and the evening vocational school for tradesmen, commercial 
workers and housewives, further stimulated the interest in the 
community for vocational education. 

What can Richmond dof — All realized, however, in spite of the 
accomplishments of the schools, that the problem of providing 
vocational education adapted to the needs of Richmond was 
still practically unsolved. The size of the city provided the 
first real difficulty. The question "What specific vocational 
education can be offered with profit in a city of 25,000 popula- 
tion?", was uppermost in the minds of the Richmond school 
authorities. Previous surveys afforded but little practical help, 
for the programs for education which they recommended were 
for much larger cities with occupational pursuits and population 
of an entirely different character. In order to answer this ques- 
tion and to map out a program for vocational education of less 
than college grade for Richmond, the community forces were 
enlisted in a concerted movement to make a detailed study of the 
productive life of the city and such phases of school organization 
as related to education for vocation. 

Organization of the Survey 

The survey authorized. — On May 6, 1915, Superintendent 
Giles was authorized by the Richmond Board of Education to 



Chap. I] The Survey 5 

extend an invitation to Professor Robert J. Leonard of Indiana 
University, to direct a vocational education survey of the city. 
Favorable consideration was given to this invitation and plans 
were formulated during May and June, 1915, indicating the gen- 
eral purpose, scope and method of the survey. 

Major co-operating agencies.— It was felt by all that co-opera- 
tion should be obtained from as many local and state agencies 
and institutions as possible in order that a sane and wise system 
of vocational education might be recommended to the city. 
During the fall of 1915, many meetings and conferences were held 
in Richmond and elsewhere, resulting in the working out of a 
practical scheme of co-operation and co-ordination between boards 
and institutions for the conduct of the Survey; the major co- 
operating agencies being the State Board of Education, Board of 
Education of Richmond, Richmond Commercial Club and In- 
'diana University. The agreement between these agencies fol- 
lows: 

Agreement between Indiana University, Board of Educa- 
tion of Richmond, The Richmond Commercial Club and 
the State Board of Education for conducting a Vocational 
Survey of Richmond, Indiana. 

1. The purpose of this survey is to determine what provi- 
sions should be made by the Board of Education of Richmond 
for organizing vocational schools and developing vocational 
education in Richmond. Such aspects of the industrial and 
commercial activities of the community and present school courses 
and organization as are necessary to answer this question shall 
be included in the study. 

2. It is understood that this survey is to be conducted co- 
operatively by Indiana University, the Board of Education of 
Richmond, and the State Board of Education, and that the report 
is to be printed under the name of the Director. These facts 
are to be stated on the cover and title page of the printed report 
as follows : 

Richmond, Indiana Vocational Survey conducted co- 
operatively by the Indiana State Board of Education, 
Board of Education of Richmond, and Indiana Univer- 
sity. 

3. In the organization of this survey, a Committee to be 
known as the Richmond Survey Committee shall be formed, con- 



6 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

sisting of the Director of the Survey, the State Director of Voca- 
tional Education and the Superintendent of the Richmond Schools, 
together with such other members as these three may select. 
This Survey Committee shall determine the scope, character and 
methods of the survey, incorporating the minimum essentials 
adopted by the State Board of Education through its State Sur- 
vey Committee or Special Agent. This committee shall consider 
and pass upon the various forms and schedules to be used and 
shall also consider and approve the final report including the 
recommendations made for developing vocational education in 
Richmond. 

The Survey Committee shall also appoint a local survey 
committee consisting of representatives from among employers, 
employees, clubs, organizations, etc., who may be interested and 
helpful in the work of the survey. 

4. The recommendations for vocational education to be made 
for the guidance of the Board of Education of Richmond shall be 
formulated by the Director of the survey, the State Director of 
Vocational Education and the Superintendent of the Richmond 
schools. These recommendations shall be submitted to the Sur- 
vey Committee, the Board of Education of Richmond and the 
State Board of Education, for their approval. When so approved 
the Board of Education of Richmond obligates itself to carry 
out the recommendations for vocational education made by the 
State Board of Education, through the above authorized agencies, 
as rapidly as conditions will permit. 

5. It is agreed that Indiana University will furnish the ser- 
vices of the Director. 

6. It is agreed that the Board of Education of Richmond 
will furnish the sum of Seven Hundred and Fifty Dollars to be 
expended as necessary in conducting this survey; also supply the 
necessary stationery, stamps, printing and the services of a sten- 
ographer; also the services of certain teachers for field workers, 
these services to be provided in accordance with such plans as 
may be in keeping with present rules and regulations and the in- 
terests and capacities of the teachers. 

7. It is agreed that the Richmond Commercial Club will 
supply the necessary office space, office furniture, a telephone and 
the services of a stenographer when needed. 



Chap. I] The Survey 7 

8. It is agreed that the State Board of Education will furnish 
a sum not to exceed One Thousand Dollars to be spent as neces- 
sary in the conduct of the survey, and also print and distribute, 
free of charge, five thousand copies of the printed report. 

Signed by 

Indiana University, W. L. Bryan, President. 
Board of Education of Richmond, W. F. Johnston, Presi- 
dent. 
Richmond Commercial Club, E. M. Haas, Secretary. 
State Board of Education, Chas. A. Greathouse, Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction. 

Other co-operating agencies. — Other agencies which co-operate 
in the survey include the United States Bureau of Education, 
which provided the services of their specialist in school and home 
gardening for the study of gardening problems; the Richmond 
Central Labor Union, which furnished valuable data and also two 
members for the general survey committee; the Wayne County 
Social Service Bureau, which furnished data regarding juvenile 
employment; and the Morrison-Reeves Public Library which 
provided the Survey office with all needed publications. 

Purpose and General Method 

Purpose. — The purpose of the Survey was, (1) to suggest a 
program for vocational education (as defined in the Indiana law) 
for all day, part-time and evening schools for Richmond; (2) to 
suggest provisions which should be made in the reorganized Junior 
high school for vocational preparatory and vocational education 
for industry, commerce, agriculture and household arts; and (3) 
to devise a program for industrial, fine and household arts for the 
elementary schools. 

General method. — The method proposed and agreed upon for 
gathering data was intensive study and investigation of the schools 
and of the productive life of the community by expert investigators 
and research agents, supplemented by the teaching force of 
Richmond. It was further agreed, however, that data should 
be interpreted in conferences, and that the educational recom- 
mendations be formulated by the free interchange of opinion of 
the members of the various committees, constituted as hereafter 
described. 



8 The Survey and Richmond [Paiit I 

Survey Procedure and Chronology 

Procedure. — After the agreement between the major co- 
operating agencies was formulated and signed, the general survey 
committee was appointed. In its preliminary meeting, this 
committee decided upon the general purpose of the survey, and 
also appointed a local survey committee, as well as a conference 
committee for each field studied. 

The local committee was to be representative of the civic, 
commercial, educational and productive interests of Richmond, 
and each conference committee was to be composed of workers, 
employers, teachers and citizens. 

After the field workers had gathered and organized occupa- 
tional facts, the findings were presented to the conference com- 
mittees for suggestions and modifications, after which each report 
was edited, and again presented to the committee for approval. 
After approval by the conference committees, the local survey 
committee considered and approved the entire report section by 
section. The general survey committee then considered the re- 
port of the findings and drafted recommendations for the develop- 
ment of vocational education in Richmond. The whole report 
and recommendations were then presented and approved by the 
State Board of Education. 

The report and recommendations have thus been considered 
and approved by the Local Conference Committees, the Local 
Survey Committee, the General Conference Committee and the 
State Board of Education. 

Chronology. — The following are the main points in the chro- 
nology of the Survey. 

May 6, 1915. Invitation sent by Richmond Board of 

Education to Department of Vocational Education of 

Indiana University to conduct the Survey. 
September-December, 1915. Consideration of plans for 

purpose, scope and work of co-operating agencies. 
January 3, 1916. Actual work of the Director begun in 

Richmond. 
January 22, 1916. First meeting of the General Survey 

Committee at Minneapolis. 
February 1, 1916. Actual field work started. 
February-May, 1916. Meetings of various Conference 

Committees and Local Committee. 



Chap. I] The Survey 9 

February 3-4, 1916. Second meeting of the General Survey 

Committee at South Bend. 
May 10-13, 1916. Third meeting of the General Survey 

Committee held at Richmond. 
May 15, 1916. Field work concluded. 
June 21, 1916. Report and recommendations considered 

and approved b}^ the State Board of Education. 
October 15, 1916. Completed report transmitted to the 

state printer. 

Personnel of the Survey 
Director and Staff 

Robert J. Leonard, Director, Professor of Vocational Edu- 
cation, Indiana University. 
Ralph D. Fleming, Research Agent. 
Jeannette Eaton, Research Agent. 
Helen Dart, Research Agent. 

Research Contributors 

During the Survey a large number of educators, teachers and 
students contributed in a very substantial manner by doing field 
work and preparing sections of the report. The following educa- 
tors contributed in this manner: 

Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Supervisor of Domestic 

Science, Indianapolis, Indiana. 
J. L. Randall, Specialist in School and Home Gardening, 
United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 
Mabel T. Wellman, Associate Professor of Home Econom- 
ics, Indiana University. 
Paul Brown, Director of Manual Training, Earlham Col- 
lege. 
Elsie Marshall, Director of Domestic Science, Earlham 
College. 
The following Richmond teachers rendered a very real service 
by doing field work and taking part in conferences: 
Myrtle Shallenburg Clara Graves 

Mary E. Williams Frank G. Pickell 

Electa Henley Charles O. Mays 

Bertha E. Larsh Elbert Vickery 

Emma Bond C. E. Strait 



10 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

Carry C. Lesh Charles F. Towle 

Stella Kelsey E. R. Helman 

Florence King Voyle Hybarger 

The following Earlham College students assisted in field work : 

Selina Gehr Vera Newsome 

Mary Mather Isabel Crabb 

Gertrude Johnson Mabel Adams 

Halcyon Hastings Wynima Binford 

Mabel Martin Mary Hiss 

Elsie McClane W. R. Baldwin 

The contribution made by the members of the various com- 
mittees is of inestimable worth. Sacrificing business and social 
engagements, those who accepted committee appointments were 
steadfast in their devotion to the work of the Survey and it is to 
these men and women that a large measure of the success of the 
Survey is due. 

General Survey Committee 

J. T. Giles, Chairman, Superintendent of Richmond 

Schools. 
F. G. Bonser, Professor of Industrial Education, Teachers 

College, Columbia University, New York City. 
Miss Cleo Murtland, Secretary Women's Work, National 

Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 

New York City. 
John A. Lapp, Director, Bureau of Legislative Information, 

Indianapolis, Indiana. 
C. A. Winslow, Special Agent for Vocational Research, 

State Board of Education , Indianapolis, Indiana. 
W. F. Book, State Director Vocational Education, In- 
dianapolis, Indiana. 
R. J. Leonard, Professor of Vocational Education, Indiana 

University, Bloomington, Indiana. 

Local Survey Committee 

J= T. Giles, Chairman, Superintendent of Richmond 

Schools. 
A. C. Allen, Secretary, Printer, Representative of the 

Central Labor Council. 
H. R. Robinson, Manufacturer, Secretary, Swayne-Rob- 

binson Company. 



Chap. I] The Survey 11 

P. A. Reid, Manufacturer, Secretary, Elliott-Reid Company, 

Member State and Richmond Board of Education, 
B. F. Edwards, Grocer, Representative Central Labor 

Council. 
G. H. Knollenberg, Proprietor Dry Goods and Furnishing 

Store. 
Miss S. A. Hill, Secretary Hill Floral Company and Member 

Richmond Board of Education. 
Mrs. C. B. Graves, Teacher, Garfield School. 
Mrs. E. E. McDivitt, Representative Women's Clubs. 
Dr. M. F. Johnston, Physician, Representative Richmond 

Board of Education. 
Dr. R. L. Kelly, President Earlham College. 

Local Conference Committees 
Household Employment 

Mrs. Elizabeth W. Candler, Visitor, Wayne County Social 

Service Bureau. 
Mrs. Paul Comstock, Housewife. 
Miss Florence King, Domestic Science Teacher, High 

School. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Hinshaw, Household Employe. 
Mrs. L. D. Mahin, District Nurse, Wayne County Social 

Service Bureau. 

Practical Nursing 

Mrs. Mary A. Albright, Practical Nurse. 
Mrs. Frank Land, Housewife. 
Dr. Joseph Kinsey, Physician. 
Dr. S. C. Markey, Physician. 

Miss Mabel T. Wellman, Associate Professor of Home 
Economics, Indiana University. 

Trained Nursing 

Miss Clara B. Pound, Superintendent of Nurses, Reid 

Memorial Hospital. 
Dr. Melville F. Johnston, Physician. 

Mr. Frank G. Pickell, Principal, Richmond High School. 
Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Superintendent of 

Domestic Science. 
Miss Mabel T. Wellman, Assistant Professor of Home 

Economics, Indiana University. 
Miss Florence King, Domestic Science Teacher, Richmond 

High School. 



12 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

Commercial Employment 

Elmer Eggemeyer, Proprietor, Bee Hive Grocery. 

A. G. Parker, Secretary, Retail Clerks Union, Number 19. 

E. R. Helman, Head of the Commercial Department, 

Richmond High School. 
E. B. Jones, Assistant Manager, Jones Hardware Company. 
Margaret Conroy, Head of Cloak and Suit Department, 

L. E. Neusbaum Clothing Store. 

Metal Working 

Clarence Brown, Moulder, Representative Moulders Local 

Number 272. 
H. S. Clark, Manager, Wescott Motor Car Company. 
W. B. Ward, Proprietor, Ward Machine Shop. 
Carl Lange, Manager, National Automatic Tool Company. 

Printing 

Charles F. Towle, Teacher of Printing, Richmond High 

School. 
G. 0. Ballenger, Proprietor, Ballenger Printing Company- 
Emery F. Wissler, Compositor, Representative Interna- 
tional Typographical Union, Local Number 301. 
Harry Fossenkemper, Pressman, Representative Printing 
Pressman and Assistants Union, Local Number 200. 

Building Trades 

Charles H. Johanning, Proprietor, Johanning Plumbing 
Company. 

Wayne Home, Plasterer, Secretary Operative Plasterers 
International Association, Local Number 407. 

Charles 0. Mayes, Teacher, Head of Department of In- 
dustrial Arts, Richmond Schools. 

John Burdsell, Carpenter, Representative United Brother- 
hood of Carpenters & Joiners of America, Local Number 
912. 

G. M. Harris, Painter, Representative Brotherhood of 
Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, 
Local Number 319. 



Chap. I] The Survey 13 

Home and School Gardening 

John F. Thompson, Teacher, Richmond High School. 
W. K. Bradbury, Real Estate Agent. 
Mrs. E. E. McDivitt, Representative Women's Clubs. 
Z. M. Smith, State Director Agricultural Education. 
J. T. Giles, Superintendent of Richmond Schools. 
J. L. Randall, Specialist, Home and School Gardening, U. 
S. Bureau of Education. 



CHAPTER II 



THE CITY OF RICHMOND 

General characteristics. — Richmond is a beautiful and pros- 
perous city of 24,369 inhabitants, located in Wayne County, 
Indiana, in the extreme eastern portion of the State. It is divided 
b}^ the Whitewater river into an older and larger eastern section, 
and a newer and smaller section to the west of the river. Settled 
over a hundred years ago by Quakers and Germans, it is a quiet, 
conservative city, scarcely conscious even now of its own social 
problems, and of the changes which are constantly taking place. 
Many people of wealth live in Richmond, but within its bounds 
are also many people extremely poor. As a whole, Richmond is 
an unusuall}^ clean citj^, both physically and morally, and its people 
have high ideals. There are marked evidences that a new social 
consciousness is developing; clubs are uniting for civic betterment, 
programs for the improvement of public health are under way, 
the Chamber of Commerce is raising a large fund for new indus- 
trial enterprises, and the schools are now more democratic than 
ever before, and the teachers more tolerant of the view that educa- 
tion is a preparation for living. Earlham College, established in 
1847, is located in Richmond, and exerts a decidedly intellectual 
influence upon the city. 

Growth of population. — Compared with other Indiana cities of 
the 25,000 class, Richmond's growth during the decade from 1900 
to 1910 ranks second, as will be noted from Table I. 



TABLE 1 

Growth of Richmond and Other Indiana Cities, 



1900-1910. 



CITIES 


Population 


Increase 1900 to 1910 




1910 Census 


1900 Census 


Number 


Per Cent. 


Hammond 


20,925 
22,324 

24,005 
22,476 
20,081 
20,629 


12,376 
18,226 

20,924 
20,178 
18,116 
20,628 


8,549 
4,098 

3,081 

2,298 

1,965 

1 


69.15 


RICHMOND 

Muncie 


22.46 

14 72 


Andfrson . . 


11 38 


Lafavette 


10 84 


New Albany 









(15) 



16 



The Survey and Richmond 



[Part I 



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Chap. II] 



The City of Richmond 



17 



Composition of population.— Of the entire population of Rich- 
mond in 1910, over 70 per cent, were native white of native parents; 
over 17 per cent, of native white of native and foreign born par- 
ents; and only about 5 per cent, of foreign born parents. The 
city is thus confronting the problem of devising a scheme of voca- 
tional education for native white residents. The facts of nativity 
of population of Richmond compared with five other Indiana 
cities will be noted from Table 2. 

///zYerac?/.— According to the United States census, an illiterate 
is a person over 10 years of age unable to write regardless of his 
ability to read. On this basis in 1910 there were fewer illiterates in 
Richmond than any other Indiana city of the same size. These 
comparative facts are recorded in Table 3. 

Richmond as a commercial center.— Being a division point on 



Transportation Map-Richmond and VicJnitv 



'R'here fiw)p«ration fs the i.ift- <. 




3—5463 



18 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad from Saint Louis to 
Pittsburg, and an important station on the Chesapeake and Ohio, 
and the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroads, Richmond is afforded 
unusual commerical advantage^. In addition to these important 
steam lines, there is frequent interurban electric sqrvice to In- 
diana and Ohio cities, and there has recently developed a network 
of auto bus lines connecting Richmond with all sections of Wayne 
County. With all these transportation facilities, Richmond has 
developed into the principal commercial center of eastern Indiana. 
The transportation map here reproduced shows the extent of the 
development of these facilities. 

Richmond as a manufacturing center. — Although usually re- 
garded as a city dominated by professional and commercial life, over 
two-thirds of the total working population are employed in shops 
and factories. From the very early days, Richmond has been the 
principal manufacturing center for agricultural implements for the 
middle west. The piano, automobile, casket, wire fence, auto- 
matic tool, and lawn mower industries are of great local as well as 
State importance. According to the United States census of 1914, 
there were 118 manufacturing establishments with a capital 
investment of $10,969,000. These establishments gave employ- 
ment to 4,238 workers who received $2,316,000 in wages. 

Richmond as an educational and literary center. — As an educa- 
tional and literar}^ center, Richmond takes first place among 
Indiana cities. The early settlers of Richmond built schools at 
the first possible opportunity, constructing rude log schoolhouses 
corresponding with their own rude dwellings. The first record 
of attention to educational matters is found in the minutes of the 
meeting held on the 25th of the eighth month, 1810, as follows: 
''When a committee was appointed to dispose of a number of school 
books which had been received from the quarterly meeting." 
The Committee, appointed by the monthly meeting, managed the 
schools, selected the pupils, collected pay, and hired the teachers. 
The schools were open to all the children in the community whether 
Quakers or not. 

The first secular school was supposed to have been established 
in 1807; but it is probable that all the legislation until 1831 was of 
no avail to the people of Wayne County. By the revision of the 
law of 1831, authorizing the election of school trustees in each 
congressional district, and the law of 1834, creating a common 



Chap. II] 



The City of Richmond 



19 



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20 The Survey and Richmond [Part I 

school fund, great impetus was given to public school education 
in Richmond. However, there were no schools entirely free until 
after the constitution of 1851 went into effect, and the Richmond 
schools became a part of the system of Public Instruction of the 
State of Indiana. 

It is thus seen that, from the very earliest days, the residents 
of Richmond have been interested in public education. The de- 
velopment of the schools since 1855 parallels the development of 
those of most cities of this type, with the exception, however, that 
in recent years, the expenditure of public funds for education, 
including buildings, equipment and salaries for administrators 
and teachers, has not been adequate or even as high as many 
other cities of this class. 

The history of the newspapers of Richmond throw interesting 
side lights upon the character of the city. As early as 1821 there 
were two weeklies; The Richmond Weekly Intelligencer, and the 
Weekly Emporium. In 1824, the Public Ledger appeared, being 
a weekly, in size about 13 by 21 inches, the subscription price 
being $2.00 per year. The Richmond Palladium, still published 
under the same name, was established by Nelson Boon, January 
1, 1831. At present there are two flourishing daily and one weekly 
newspapers. 



PART TWO 
OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION 



(21) 



CHAPTER HI 



OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT 



The Richmond Industries 

Imj)ortance of Richmond industries. — The industries of Rich- 
mond are the most important economic factor in the hfe of the 
city. In 1914, according to advance reports issued by the United 
States Bureau of the Census, there were 118 manufacturing estabhsh- 
ments in the city giving employment to 4,238 workers. The capi- 
tal invested was $10,969,000 and the products manufactured were 
valued at $10,252,000. The wages paid amounted to $2,316,000. 
These figures do not include the hand trades, the building trades, 
neighborhood industries or other t^^pes of production not actually 
carried on under the factory system. The actual and percentage 
increase in the number of workers in manufacturing establish- 
ments in Richmond and other Indiana cities is recorded in Table 4. 



TABLE 4 

Actual and Percentage of Increase of Workers in 

Manufacturing Plants in Richmond and Other 

Indiana Cities, 1904-1909 



CITIES 


Workers Employed in 

Manufacturing 

Plants 


Increase in Workers 
1904-1909 




1909 


1904 


Number 


Per Cent. 


Hammond 

Anderson 

Muncie 

RICHMOND 

Indianapolis 

New Albany 

Lafayette 


4,379 
5,109 
4,444 
4,433 
37,929 
2,135 
1,983 


1,702 
3,491 
3,106 
3,483 
31,431 
2,444 
2,097 


2,677 

1,618 

1,338 

950 

6,495 

-309* 

-114* 


157 
46 
43 
27 

26 
-12* 

-7* 



*Decrease. 



(23) 



24 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



That the industries of Richmond in 1909 employed a much 
larger per cent, of all the workers of the city than many other 
Indiana cities is noted from Table 5. 

TABLE 5 

Percentage of Total Inhabitants Employed in Manu- 
facturing Establishments in Richmond and Other 
Cities, Derived from Number in Industries 
IN 1909, and Population in 1910 



CITIES 


Per Cent, in 
Industry 


CITIES 


Per Cent, in 
Industry 


Anderson 

Hammond 

RICHMOND 

Muneie 


23.0 
21.0 
20 
18.0 


Indianapolis 

New Albany 

Lafayette 


12.0 
10.0 
10.0 



Industries analyzed hy the Survey. — The industrial survey of 
Richmond includes the twenty-three most important industries 
which are analyzed in detail in the twelve following chapters. 
These industries give employment to about 5,000 workers, repre- 
senting over 250 distinct trades, 145 of which were studied in 
detail. The complete list of the industries studied, the number of 
occupations analyzed, and the male and female workers, will be 
found in Table 6. 



Statistical Facts About Workers 

Individual schedules were filled out by 471 workers from the 
industries analyzed by the Survey. While this number is but 
one-tenth of all employed in the industries studied, it is thought 
that the information obtained from, this group of workers is fairly 
typical and representative of the total group. The detailed facts 
are recorded in the following paragraphs and tables. 

Place of birth. — The most striking single fact about the workers- 
in Richmond manufacturing establishments is that the great 
majority are native born Americans. Of the whole number 
studied but thirty-four are foreign born. These facts of nativity 
are reported in Table 7. 

Age groups. — Compared with Richmond, Virginia, and the 
average for other cities throughout the country, there is a tendency 



Chap. Ill] 



Overview of Industrial Employment 



25 



TABLE 6 

Total Number of Workers Employed on March 1, 1916, 

IN Industries Analyzed by the Survey (Office 

AND Sales Force Excluded) 





Number 


Workers Employed 


INDUSTRY 


of Occu- 
pations 


















Analyzed 


Males 


Females 


Total 


Automobile 


8 


173 


15 


188 


Wire fence 


10 
10 


126 
154 




126 


Lawn mower 


154 


Agricultural implement 


13 


791 




791 


Railroad repairing, machine tool man- 










ufacturing and other metal indus- 










tries 


17 


1,182 




1,182 


Musical instrument, casket and fur- 










niture industries . 


24 


873 


64 


937 


Job and newspaper printing 


10 


72 




83 


Building construction 


14 


509 




509 


Underwear, glove and workingmen's 










wear industries 


21 


88 


492 


580 


Ladies' tailoring, dressmaking and 










general sewing 


3 


5 


181 


186 


Dry cleaning, dyeing and hat cleaning. 


8 


24 


16 


40 


Laundry 


7 


13 


26 


39 


Grand Total 


145 


4,010 


794 


4,815 







in Richmond to enter the industries hsted at a later age and to 
remain in them for a longer period of time. Exact figures for 
purposes of comparison are available for 419 workers in Richmond, 
Indiana, and 509 in Richmond, Virginia. In the former city, 12 
per cent, of the workers are under 21 years of age; 64 per cent, 
between 21 and 45 years; and 24 per cent, over 45 years; whereas 
in the latter city the percentage for the same groups are 15, 72, 
and 13. The age groups of Richmond workers are recorded in 
Table 8. 

Conjugal condition. — It will be noted from Table 9 that less 
than one-fourth of the 424 workers reporting are single. 

Education. — It will be noted from Table 10 that one-half of the 
377 workers reporting attended the Richmond schools and one-half 
schools elsewhere and that more of those who attended schools 



26 Occupational Information [Part II 

elsewhere completed the elementary school as well as the high 
school. 

Age upon leaving school. — Regarding the age at which 413 
workers left school, fewer than one-half left under the age of 15 
years, indicating that the majority of these workers remained in 
school considerably beyond the present working permit age. 
Coupled with schools completed, these facts indicate that the 
Richmond industrial workers have received more education than 
the great majority so employed in other parts of the country. 
The detailed facts are recorded in Table 11. 

Hours of work. — The majority of the 423 workers, report 
working over ten hours each week day and over eight hours on 
Saturday. There are exceptions, however, in the work of fore- 
men, moulders, factory seamstresses, and other skilled occupa- 
tions where the majority work from nine to ten hours on week 
days and from five to eight hours on Saturdays. The facts for 
each group of trades are recorded in Table 12. 

Wages. — Richmond wages are unusually low, one-fifth of the 
278 workers reporting receive less than $10.01 each week; about 
one-half of all reporting receive less than S15.01 each week and 
four-fifths of all reporting receive under $20.01 each week. The 
wage variation by trade groups will be found in Table 13. 

Years of experience. — The distinctive fact to be noted from 
Table 14 regarding the number of years of experience in the present 
occupation of 416 workers reporting, is the relatively Ions: 
period of time which the present occupation has been followed. 
This fact is consistent with the relatively high percentage of 
older workers employed in Richmond, as previously noted. 

Other occupations followed. — Not one of the 310 workers re- 
porting are now working at their first line of employment. The 
majority have worked at one other occupation and many at two 
other occupations. These facts are recorded in Table 15. 

Courses taken since leaving school. — One hundred and eight of 
366 workers report taking courses of some kind since leaving 
school; of these, public night school courses were most frequently 
taken. The detailed facts by trade groups will be found in Table 
16. 



Chap. Ill] Overview of Industrial Employment 



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36 



Occupational Infokmation 



[Part II 



TABLE 15 

Number of Occupations Other than the Present Fol- 
lowed BY 310 Workers in Manufacturing 
Establishments 



OCCUPATIONS 



Number 

Re- 
porting 



Number 
not 
Re- 
porting 



Total 



Number of 
Other Occu- 
pations 



1 2 



Foremen 

Wood machine operators 

Moulders 

Machinists 

Metal machine operators 

Cabinet makers 

Bench wood workers 

Factory seamstresses (not garment 
factory) 

Fence loom operators 

Painters 

Platers and polishers 

Other skilled occupations. ........ 

Miscellaneous semi-skilled occupa- 
tions 

Laborers 

Drivers and teamsters 

Receiving and shipping clerks 

Grand Total 



23 
29 
14 
10 
19 
14 
12 

7 
13 

7 

9 

68 

47 

22 

5 

11 



10 

10 

13 

12 

3 

7 

7 

9 
2 
4 
1 
45 

30 
6 
1 
1 



33 
39 

27 
22 
22 
21 
19 

16 
15 
11 
10 
113 

77 

28 

6 

12 



310 



161 



471 



179 



94 



32 



Chap. Ill] Overview of Industrial Employment 



37 



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CHAPTER IV 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: AUTOMOBILE 
MANUFACTURING 



Inventions dealing with new methods of transportation are 
the fruit of the twentieth century. Among recent inventions none 
have had a more rapid development or attained a higher degree 
of perfection and had wider use than the automobile. While the 
beginning of the industry in this country was in 1895, with the 
granting of the Selden patent, which made use of an internal 
combustion engine for the propulsion of a vehicle, the industry 
did not become of commercial importance before the year 1900. 
From that time its development has been rapid. 

Factors contributing to development. — Many factors have con- 
tributed to the rapid development of the automobile industry. 
The fact that it was not an outgrowth of an already highly devel- 
oped industry with no accretion of accepted tradition, permitted 
the blazing of a new trail in industrial method. Automobile 
manufacturing, therefore, developed with few pre-conceived 
ideas as to factory processes. The industry, also from the begin- 
ning, has taken full advantage of scientific management. Further- 
more, at the time of the inception of the industry the stock of 
world's knowledge of mechanics was relatively evenly divided 
among industrial countries with the possible exception of France, 
where it was more advanced. The advantage, however, which 
France possessed, was the early acceptance of the idea of the 
gasohne motor and not any secret process. Thus, the world's 
technical resources have been focussed upon the perfection of the 
automobile. Finally, coming in a very prosperous decade, from 
1900 to 1910, automobiles were readily accepted by the public 
as a new means of transportation. 

Census figures showing growth. — The rapidity with which the 
industry has grown is shown by contrasting the census years of 
1899 and 1909. In the former year there were 57 establishments 
in the United States employing 2,241 wage-earners whose output 

(39) 



40 Occupational Information [Part II 

was valued at $4,748,011; in the latter year there were 743 estab- 
lishments, the wage-earners numbered 75,721 and the product 
was valued at $249,202,075. 

Value of output. — According to value of output ■ by states, 
Indiana in 1909 ranked fourth among the 19 states report- 
ing, being surpassed by Michigan, Ohio and New York. The value 
of Indiana's automobile output was placed at $23,764,070 in 1909. 
Richmond is rated as one of the smaller automobile centers of 
Indiana. There are three factories engaged in the manufacture 
of pleasure cars employing over 250 workers. 

How an Automobile is Manufactured 

Multiplicity of parts required. — Seeing an automobile flash by 
on the street, with every part working in perfect co-ordination 
gives the impression of a vehicle of speed, ease of propulsion, 
quickness and grace. Seeing the same vehicle in process of man- 
ufacture gives an entirely different concept. The multiplicity of 
parts entering into its construction, and the great number of hand 
and machine operations necessary before its completion, gives 
the impression of a delicate and complicated piece of mechanism 
extremely difficult to master. 

Assemhliiig industry in Richmond. — All of the parts which 
enter into the construction of automobiles made in Richmond 
are purchased outside of the city and fitted and assembled in the 
local factories. The types of cars made, however, are distinctive 
and each manufacturer prides himself on his models, their styles 
and fittings. 

First stage in manufacture. — In the making of a typical auto- 
mobile in a Richm^ond factory, the first step concerns itself with 
the turning out of ''next year's" models. Sometime during the 
summer the company officials, the factory manager, the adver- 
tising manager, the sales manager and superintendent meet in 
conference and decide on the new models, the fittings to be used, 
the style of bodies to be adopted, the length of wheel base and 
other essentials. Certain innovations in fighting and starting 
systems, in springs, axles or in any other part which have been 
introduced after the appearance of the last model, are ''tried out" 
on an experimental car. Those proving satisfactory may be 
adopted for the coming models. 



Chap. IV. 1 Automobile Manufacturing 



41 




Stripped of Body, Top and Fenders, the Modern Automobile is a Series of 
Mechanical Units, all Perfectly Co-ordinated. 




Beauty of Design, as Well as Mechanical Perfection, is Essential in Automo- 
bile Construction. 



42 Occupational Information [Part II 

Making the new models. — When the Hnes and fittings of the 
new models have been decided upon, the draftsman draws up a 
model on paper from which an experimental car is made. The 
car is then given road tests, and if necessary, its design may be 
changed to give a greater degree of comfort, beauty or service. 
Wash drawings of the car and patterns of its various parts are 
sent to agents throughout the country and later are printed in 
catalogs. After the try outs are finished and the experimental 
model accepted, the stock models are made up for the coming 
year. The purchasing agent orders parts for a lot of 50, 75 or 100 
as the case may be, and the cars are built. The line of models 
are shown at the New York and Chicago automobile shows and 
orders taken for future deliveries. 

Inspection of consignments of parts. — After the orders of the 
purchasing agent have been filled by various manufacturers, 
each consignment as it is received is given a thorough inspection, 
with the exception of guaranteed parts, such as tires and "standard 
accessories. The large parts are inspected as units, and the small 
parts by the random selection and inspection of a few from the 
lot. 

Classifying in stock room. — Following the inspection the parts 
are taken to the stock room and are placed in bins according to a 
classification made up in the office. The stock room is equipped 
with a number of double decked trucks, each truck loaded with 
the parts needed for one group of operations performed by one 
gang of men. 

First asseinhling. — In the first assembling process, springs and 
axles are attached to the frame; the steering gear is set in place 
and the gasoline tank attached to the rear of the frame. Next 
the propeller shaft and torque arm are attached and the tire 
carriers placed on the chassis, after which the battery and motor, 
the transmission, the hand control, the foot control, the electrical 
unit, the carburetor, the vacuum tank and the radiator are all 
installed in their proper places. In the first assembly, also, the 
wheels and tires are placed on the frame, but later taken off in 
the paint room, and put on the second time at the final assembly. 
At this state the chassis is given its first test. 

In "testing out" the car, the tester looks for defects in the 
motor, ignition, oiling, fuel and cooling systems, transmission, 



Chap. IV] Automobile Manufacturing 43 

frame, springs, axles, brakes, control and clutch, and the steering 
gear and wheels. The car is tried out on hills and level roads. 
Its maximum speed on a level is noted. If any of the above named 
parts fail to operate properly, a notation is made on a form pre- 
pared for the purpose and the report forwarded to the head tester 
who has the factory from which they were purchased replace, 
repair or ad j ust them . 

Painting department. — The chassis is primed and painted, 
and the body is painted and varnished. Whatever striping is 
necessary is done in this department by the foreman. Enameling 
jobs are sent out to enameling shops. 

Woodworking department. — In the wood room various wooden 
fittings are made and accessories are installed. Although the 
bodies are received in a finished state, they undergo certain 
minor changes to prepare them for parts to be attached. Doors 
are hung and locks tested. The wind shield is placed on the body 
and the small dash instruments, such as the clock, speedometer, 
oil gauge, foot and rest rails, are set in place. The auxiliary seats 
are then set in position. The running and toe boards are con- 
structed in this department and mounted in the final assembling 
room. 

Electrical department. — Wiring is the principal work of the 
electrical department. In this department starting and lighting 
units are properly wired. Making up the cable, attaching it to 
body, tonneau lights, etc., comprise the bulk of the work. 

Final assemhlifig. — The body is taken to the final assembling 
room where it is attached to the chassis. Here the tires are again 
fitted to the wheels and the sheet metal parts, including radiators, 
fenders, hood and lamps, are installed, after which the running 
and toe boards and top are set in place. 

Testing. — There remains but one operation before the car is 
ready for shipment. The completed automobile is taken out 
and run a short distance to loosen up the running parts, and ascer- 
tain that the car is in perfect condition. 



44 Occupational Information [Part II 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males Females 

First assemblers 29 

Woodworkers (see also Chapter VII) 7 , 

Painters 34 

Upholstery workers 38 

Electrical workers 5 

Final assemblers 29 

Testers 14 

Machine operators (see Chapter VIII) . . . 15 

Blacksmiths (see Chapter VIII) 8 

Final inspectors (not analyzed) 5 

Engineers (not analyzed) 4 

Total 173 15 

It will be noted that the first and final assemblers constitute 
over 32 per cent, of the total number of workers. Upholstery 
workers constitute 19 per cent, of the total number, while painters 
constitute the next largest group. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Mental and physical requirements of workers. — The automobile 
industry is essentially a young man's industry. Men in middle 
life do not seem to be adaptable enough to meet the varying re- 
quirements of the business. Assemblers need the same type of 
ability as machinists. Cutters and back hangers should possess 
a well developed sense of form, and painters, a well developed 
sense of color. For the woodworking, painting and cutting room 
occupations, little physical strength is needed. The cutter and 
back hangers need a sense of form, the painter needs a sense of 
color and the woodworker the attitude of carefulness. 

General education required. — All workers need at least a com- 
plete eighth grade education. Much of the work is on a piece 
basis, including first assembling, painting and trimming. The 
workers, therefore, must be able to read, write and add, and figure 
their time. 

Promotion. — Promotion within or between departments is in- 
frequent. Most of the foremen were secured from the outside, 
although one present head tester and a foreman of the machine 



Chap. IV] Automobile Manufacturing 45 

shop were chosen from among the ranks. There is a possible nar- 
row range of promotion within a department, as in the first assem- 
bhng and trimming departments. In the majority of cases, 
however, a man is hired for a certain job and remains on that one 
job during his stay in the factory. 

Source and selection of workers. — Employees are secured 
usually by the foreman of the respective departments. In some 
cases the superintendent sends a man to a foreman for the fore- 
man's approval. The men secure their jobs by personal inter- 
view. 

As most of the work requires special knowledge and experience, 
a man is hired because he can run a certain machine or perform a 
certain operation. When hard pressed for labor, an inexperienced 
worker may be hired, but a skilled operator is always given the 
preference. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — There are two busy seasons in 
the automobile trade ; one which starts about the first of February 
and continues to the middle of June; the other, which starts late 
in August and extends through until about Christmas. The slack 
season is becoming shorter each year. Companies do not lay off 
their men during the slack season. Overtime is very infrequent. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The temperature and 
ventilation in the automobile factories are satisfactory. 

The workers in the painting department are subject to all the 
occupational diseases of the trade. With the exception of some 
women sewers in the trimming room, the workers stand at the 
work. 

Wages. — Wages are said to range from twelve to thirty-five 
dollars a week, with an average approximating twenty dollars. 
Cutting in the trimming department is among the highest paid 
occupations. The working day is ten hours with one-half day off 
on Saturday. 

The First Assembler 

What the worker does. — Assembling operations may be roughly 
grouped under four different heads; riveting small parts on frames, 
attaching axles and springs, assembling the various units to the 
motor, and installing the motor and radiator. 

The men work in groups of three or four about the chassis 



46 Occupational Information [Part II 

which rests on steel horses. Nearby on trucks are placed the 
various parts needed to be assembled. The riveters, with the use 
of the electric drill, drill the holes in the chassis and rivet in place 
small parts, such as step irons, torque arms and equalizers. 
Another group attaches the springs, axles and other parts to the 
frame. A third group attaches the starter and generator to the 
motor, and the fourth group install the motor and its attached 
units and mount the radiator in place. 

Engines are timed and regulated prior to being received. 
This is true of all other working parts. Assembling, as the term 
indicates, does not involve adjusting. 

Special knowledge required. — Assemblers must be able to 
recognize all the machine parts, know where and how parts are to 
be mounted, and what tools to use and how to use them. Previous 
experience in a machine or automobile shop is an asset as is also a 
knowledge of the principles of applied electricity. 

Special skill required. — Varying degrees of skill are necessary, 
depending upon the particular assembling job. The work of 
bolting and riveting fixed parts into place, such as braces, struts 
and supports of different kinds, requires only the skill to manipu- 
late certain hand tools effectively, such as drills and riveting ma- 
chines. These become largely mechanical operations requiring 
little judgment. The part fits in a certain place and no other, and 
the place into which it is to be fitted is clearly indicated on the 
chassis, or by templates. 

Another group of assembling operations involved in mounting 
the transmission, the steering apparatus and the motor, require 
a higher grade of mechanical skill. In placing the transmission, 
the worker must see that the gears mesh properly at the different 
speeds. It is necessary that the workers on the steering gear see 
that all the parts work in perfect alignment, and that the wheel 
has no lost motion and readily responds to the operator. The 
workers who install the motor and starting and lighting units, 
must so install the apparatus that there is perfect co-ordination 
of the separate parts. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special skill is 
obtained only by working on the job and keeping in touch with the 
new developments in the industry, such as starting, gear-shifting 



Chap. IV] Automobile Manufacturing 47 

and lighting systems. School courses in applied electricity and 
mechanics are essential, if assemblers desire to keep abreast of the 
times in the newer developments of the industry. 

The Woodworker 

See also Chapter VII, "Agricultural Implement Manufacturing." 

What the worker does. — Woodworkers fit speedometers, gauges 
and other instruments on the dash, and install auxiliary seats, 
covers, running boards and hang doors and racks. The running 
boards are received cut to size, and the worker covers the surface 
with linoleum, binds the edges with alimunum strips, and places 
the boards in a press. Running and toe boards are mounted in 
the final assembling room. 

Special knowledge required. — Woodworkers must be familiar 
with the various parts of the body and the ordinary dash instru- 
ments and methods of mounting. The same type of special 
knowledge is here required as of a trimmer and assembler in a 
cabinet shop or furniture factory. 

Special skill required. — The essential requirements of these 
occupations are carefulness and neatness. The dash instruments 
must be fitted exactly and show no blemishes since they are in 
plain sight and are part of the "fittings" comparable to the cabinet 
work on a piano. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — An experienced 
cabinet maker soon develops the special skill required by following 
the directions of the foreman. 

The Painter 

What the worker does. — In the painting department there is a 
wide range of work incident to the various stages of finishing from 
priming to the final coat and striping. Upon receiving the chassis, 
a "rough coat" is put on to prevent rusting. A large brush is used 
and little skill is required to successfully apply this first coat. 

The body of the automobile receives many coats. The first, 
known as the priming coat, is usually applied by one rated as a 
laborer using a heavy bristle brush. This coat is rubbed down 
with haircloth or similar material. The process is known as 
"rough rubbing" and results in giving a smooth even surface for 
the subsequent coats of paint. 



48 Occupational Information [Part II 

Following this a number of coats of paint are brushed on. 
After the paint has thoroughly dried, the striping, lettering and 
varnishing are done. The finishing coats must be brushed on 
quickly and with extreme care so that no brush marks show. 
The body is then rubbed with pumice stone and water and finished 
by hand to obtain a lasting polish. After the painting processes 
are completed, the body is striped and varnished and a monogram 
may be painted on the door. The striping must be evenly done 
and the monogram properly proportioned, and in the exact accord 
with the style of letter chosen. 

Special knowledge required. — For the initial operations of paint- 
ing the chassis little special knowledge is necessary. In 
rubbing, knowledge of pumice stone, rotten stone and their 
various degrees of hardness is essential. For the ordinary 
painting operations the painter needs to be familiar with oils and 
paints and mixing methods for body coats for automobiles. In 
finishing work and striping the painters should have, besides the 
ordinary trade information concerning materials and processes, 
a knowledge of color harmony, style of lettering and the most 
effective ways of striping. All painters need a knowledge of the 
hygiene of the occupation. 

Special skill required.- — A steady hand and strong wrist is 
required to a greater or less extent in all painting operations. 
For the painter on finishing operations skill is needed to lay the 
paint or the varnish on with long brush strokes, quickly and evenly. 
The rubber must rub the part smoothly and evenly. In finishing 
rubbing, he brings up a polish by drawing the open hand skill- 
fully over the varnished surface. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — -For the first 
painting operations, skill may be gained on the job by following the 
instructions of the foreman. For the final painting and finishing 
operations, a thoroughly skilled painter and varnisher, who has 
learned his trade by serving an ap])renticeship, is required. 

The Upholstery Workers: Cutters, Trimmers and Stitchers 

What the workers do. — The most important occupation in the 
upholstery department is that of cutter. Each season he is given 
a set of designs for the types of automobiles which his establish- 
ment makes. From these designs he lays out his patterns for cut- 



Chap. IV] Automobile Manufacturing 49 

ting the leather and cloth stock. Preparing the pattern is the 
most important part of his work. The parts for which stock 
must be cut are the seats, the cushions, the top, the curtains and 
the extra tire covering. 

The trimmer prepares seats for the leather or cloth coverings 
by mounting springs over the wooden frame, and filling in with a 
layer of hair, after which he drapes the material received from the 
cutter in folds over the seat bottom and back. He binds the edges 
with tape and tacks the tape to the woodwork. 

The top maker lays out his work over the bows of the top. 
After the top is made it is lined on the underside with cloth or a 
prepared fabric, and set in place with curtain studs. It is held in 
place on the bows by being stitched down to cross pieces of heavy 
canvas. 

Machine stitching is usually done by women. They do ordi- 
nary machine stitching on a power machine, hemming side cur- 
tains, tire covers, cloth parts and leather or water-proofed material 
used for tops. 

Special knowledge required. — The cutter must be able to visua- 
lize his work before putting it in place. He has no pattern to fol- 
low, and whether or not he makes an artistic effect, as in the case 
of an upholstered back, depends upon his ability to draft the proper 
pattern for the covering fabric. The trimmer must have a thor- 
ough knowledge of the trade. He must be able to lay out material 
to the best advantage with the least waste, and must also follow 
the adapted patterns. The top maker must have a thorough 
knowledge of covering fabrics, their composition and strength, 
and a knowledge of the approved methods of top construction. 
Machine stitchers must be able to thread, operate and control 
power sewing machines. 

Special skill required. — The cutter must know the technique of 
pattern drafting and ^'la3;ing out," and stock cutting. The 
trimmer must be a thorough master of fabric draping and general 
upholstering. The top maker must be able to lay the fabric 
smoothly and firmly over the bows and attach it in place. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The cutters have 
usually learned the trade of upholsterer. The trimmers and top 
makers obtain their knowledge and skill on the job under the 
direction of the cutter. The sewers must have a knowledge of 
machine sewing before coming to the work. 

5—5463 



50 Occupational Information [Paht II 

The Electrician 

What the worker does. — The electrician must install wire cables 
to lights, starter, horn, ignition system, fuse boxes and switches, 
from the battery, generator, motor and magneto. Cutting the 
cable to length and preparing the terminal is done by young helpers 
under the direction of the electrician. 

Special knowledge required. — The electrician must possess a 
thorough knowledge of wiring, as related to dash instruments, 
batteries, lights and ignition; of the storage battery related to 
lights, ignition and gear shifting, and of various ignition types. 

Special skill required. — The technical skills are subordinate to 
technical knowledge. The electrician must mount each wire in 
its proper path, connecting each with its proper unit at one end 
and with the instrument board at the other. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special skill may 
be obtained by working on the job under the direction of the 
foreman. The required aspects of special knowledge may be 
obtained only by the serious study of applied electrical theory. 

The Final Assembler 

What the worker does. — The finishing operations on the auto- 
mobile are performed by the final assemblers, who bolt down the 
body into place, on the chassis attach tires, fenders, running and 
toe boards, fit the hood and top, and mount tonneau, side and tail 
lights. 

Special knowledge required. — Final assemblers must be familiar 
with automobile parts and accessories and where and how they 
should be assembled. 

Special skill required. — The ability to put on a part neatly and 
without scarring, or otherwise injuring it, or any part of the body, 
is the prime requisite. Skill of hand which comes through repeti- 
tion, is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — By working at 
the job under the direction of a foreman, the necessary knowledge 
and skill are obtained. 



Chap. IV] Automobile Manufactueing 51 

The Tester 

What the worker does. — When the automobile chassis is finished? 
it is given a road test to determine whether the engine, transmis- 
sion, starting devices, and other parts which make up the motive 
power, are in perfect working condition. The tester drives the 
machine on the road under all sorts of conditions and reports to the 
head tester the parts which need adjustment, replacing or repair- 
ing. After the noted adjustments have been made, a short final 
test is given. 

Special knowledge required. — A knowledge of the principal parts 
of an automobile and how these parts should operate, is essential. 
The tester must also know how to make ordinary adjustments on 
the road, so if any trouble develops he may get the automobile 
back to the factory. 

Special skill required. — The skill to detect engine trouble or 
other defects by watching the operation of the motor, the trans- 
mission and ignition, and all moving parts of the car while it is 
in motion, is essential. This requires a keen eye and well developed 
sense of hearing. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained by actual road testing under the 
direction of the head tester. In most instances the testers have 
had no previous experience in the work. Testers would be greatly 
profited by a knowledge of practical mechanics and applied 
electrical theory. 

The Machine Operator 

The Blacksmith 

For the trade analysis of these workers in this, and other in- 
dustries, see Chapter VIII, "Railroad Repairing, Machine Tool 
Manufacturing and other Metal Industries." 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The automobile industry in Richmond, being primarily an 
assembling industry, gives employment to relatively few skilled 
woodworkers, body makers, upholsterers and machinists. Sug- 
gestions concerning trade education for machinists are recorded 
in Chapter VIII. 



52 Occupational Information [Part II 

The majority of the workers in the industry are assemblers and 
testers. This work is performed largely by young men. With 
the widespread introduction of electrical devices as an organic 
pai't of automobile construction, practically all workers are re- 
quired in some way, either directly or indirectly, to have intimate 
knowledge of the basic theory of electrical constructions as re- 
lated to the automobile. The workers have, as a rule, left school 
before taking the high school physics course, which in part relates 
to this work. 

Evening school courses in applied electricity on a trade exten- 
sion short unit basis should be provided for workers in this in- 
dustry. Such courses should be taught by an automobile expert, 
who has the necessary technical education in applied electricity. 
Some of the units which should be included in the series of units 
are: Wiring as related to dash instruments, batteries, lights and ig- 
nition; storage battery as related to lights, ignition and gear 
shifting; and various ignition types. 

The trade recognizes that the electrical possibilities of auto- 
mobile control and operation are yet in their infancy. Young 
men, thoroughly conversant with the fundamentals of applied 
electricity are eligible for promotion and advancement. 



CHAPTER V 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: WIRE FENCE 
MANUFACTURING 

Production. — Among the pi'oducts of the iron and steel indus- 
try, wire occupies a prominent place. More than half a million 
tons of wire, valued at over $35,000,000, were manufactured in the 
United States the year previous to the taking of the 1910 census 
of manufacturing. Of the states prominent in wire production in 
1909, Indiana ranked sixth, producing 24,623 tons valued at 
$1,101,380. Much of this product went into the manufacture of 
wire fence. 

Richmond' s place in the industry. — While Richmond does not 
manufacture wire, it is noted for the manufacture of wire fence. 
The one plant located here employs from 130 to 140 men, working 
tv/o shifts daily, in supplying the demand for this important com- 
modity. The product is distributed throughout the United States, 
going largely to farmers, ranchers, and stock and poultry raisers. 
Shipments of wire fence are made in car load lots and exceed in 
tonnage any other commodity made in Richmond. 

How Wire Fence is Woven 

Stages in manufacture. — Wire fence is woven on an automatic 
machine designed to weave either single or double width of fabric. 
The machine weaves vertical wires across horizontal ones at 
regulated stay spaces. The operations of the machine include 
the feeding, severing, looping and twisting of the wire. 

Strand and stay wires. — The galvanized wire is first thrown 
over drums or reels, from twelve to twenty-one in number, accord- 
ing to the style of fence being made. These drums are fastened 
to the floor at set distances from the machine. All but one con- 
tain the strand wire which takes a horizontal position in the 
finished fence, while the other bears the upright or stay wires. 

How the wires are fed on the machine. — The strand wires pass 
through an oil bath over guides into the machine and from the 
machine into a drum known as a pull up drum. This drum pulls 

(53) 



54 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Strand and Stay Wires Entering the Loom. The Streaked Line Cutting the 
Picture is the Stay Wire. 

up the wire after each cycle of operations. The stay wire, after 
leaving the reel, also passes through an oil bath but enters the 
machine transversely through a guide. Both strand and stay wires 
are fed into the machine simultaneously. 

Looping and twisting. — When the infeed of wire has been 
completed for one operation, the looping and twisting takes 
place. The stay wire is fed across a series of strand wires, through 
guides or funnels, by means of a feed roll mounted on the left 
side of the machine. The stay wire is ejected from the guides by 
a series of lifters and carried over against the strand wires, at 
which time the beaters press the wire down against the twister 
heads to permit the looping process to occur. 

Twisters on single and double fabric— -The twisters on a single 
width of fabric are so arranged as to operate with two central 
looping twisters, so that the twisting and looping starts at the 
center of the machine and ends with the outer twisters on each 
side of the loom. When the machine is making double fence a 
center cutter is set in the middle of the machine, and on each side 



Chap. V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 



55 




Wire Being Drawn into the Fence Weaving Machine. The Hollow Drum at 
the Rear Bears Strand Wire; the Reels, Upright and Stay Wire. 



there is a marginal twister driven by spur gearing. Immediately 
after the center cutter severs the stay wire into two parts, the 
marginal twister, and an adjacent one known as a looping twister, 
being intergeared, operate simultaneously in completing the 
twisting process. 

Direction in which twisters operate.- — W^hether the machine 
operates on single or double fabric, the operation starts at a central 
point and works progressively toward the outer margin, the twist- 
ers on each side of the center knife, except the marginal twisters, 
revolving in opposite directions. 

Final operations. — When severing, looping and twisting op- 
erations have been completed, the fence passes onto the pull up 
drum, which raises it the necessary height or stay space. When a 
sufficient number of rods have been woven, as indicated by a 
counter on the loom, the operator throws the machine out of gear, 
and, together with his helper, severs the wire with plyers and 
removes the completed bale from the reel. 



56 



Occupational Information 



Part II 




'I 











♦\\»\'^\ll 



Chap. V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 



57 




Looping and Twisting. Starting from the Base of the Picture at the Center, 
Note the Various Stages in the Twisting Process. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Foremen, weaving department 2 

Loom operators 42 

Loom operators' helpers 32 

Machinists (see Chapter VIII) 4 

Electric welders 4 

Inspectors -. 2 

Inspectors' helpers 2 

Laborers and checkers 32 

Cranemen 2 

Sealer 2 

Stockkeeper (see Chapter XVII) 1 

Foremen, Warehouse (see Chapter XVII) 1 

Total 126 

It will be noted that of the 126 men employed on the two 
shifts, almost one-third are engaged in operating power looms. 
Together with their helpers, the loom operators constitute ap- 



58 



OrriTPATioNAL Information 



Part II 



proximal oly fifty-seven per cent, of the total number of employees. 
In numerical im]:)oi'tance, lahoix^rs and rhockors ai'o next to op- 
erators' helpoi's. 

Fads Com moil to All Workers 

Mental and physical requirements. — The mental and physical 
characteristics required for workers vary. The helpers and 
laborers need to be physically strong as part of the helper's work 
is lifting heavy bales of wire, and part of the laborer's work is 
trucking and moving the bales from place to place. The operator 
also needs to be strong, for in many instances, he assists the 
lielper in taking bales off the loom. 

General education required. — Fence weaving is not a trade and 
most of the weavers have been taught the occupation on the job. 
As the work is done largely on a piece basis, most of the men 
need at least a common school education which will enable them 
to read, write and figure overtime, and to read scales and counters. 

Promotion. — There is a narrow range of promotion on certain 
jobs. A new man taken on as a helper may work into a loom 
operator's job. In one case a loom operator became an in- 




Reeling the Woven Wire. 



Chap V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 59 

spector. There is slight chance of securing a position as foreman 
since they are very few in number and are usually chosen from the 
outside. 

Source and selection of workers. — The men are hired by the fore- 
men of the various departments on personal application, or on 
recommendation by the superintendent to the foremen. A laborer 
in the firm may become a helper. 

Seasonahleness. — The busiest time in this industry is from the 
middle of August until June, when two shifts are employed. Dur- 
ing the summer the factory shuts down for a couple of weeks. 

Hours of labor. — The employees in this industry work sixty 
hours a week. The night men work twelve hours per night for five 
nights per week, and the day men ten and one-third hours on all 
days except Saturday, when they work eight and one-third hours. 
Following the usual custom in Richmond, one hour per day is 
allowed for dinner. 

Nativity and former occupations. — The majority of the em- 
ployees of this industry are native born. Some of them have been 
farm laborers or farmers in the vicinity of Richmond. They are 
nearly all local men. The workers are not unionized. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The working condi- 
tions in this industry, in the main, are good. In one of the rooms 
adapted for the purpose of weaving, the light was poor, requiring 
the use of artificial light. The weavers may sit at their work. 
There are practically no dangers from machines. It is possible 
for an operator or helper to be cut by flying wire pulling loose 
from its moorings, but this rarely occurs. 

The Foreman, Weaving Department 

What the worker does. — The foreman has general supervision 
over all machines and occasionally inspects them to see if they 
need repairing. He also gives the order slips to the weavers and 
sees that all work is done according to standard specifications. 

Special knowledge required. — The foreman must have a de- 
tailed working knowledge of machine construction and operation, 
such as is usually possessed by a master mechanic. 

Special skill required. — The foreman must be able, if necessary, ' 
to set up and operate all the types of looms used. 



60 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
skill and knowledge are obtained by previous experience in the 
operation of a loom, acquired on the job. 

The Loom Operator 

What the worker does. — The work of the weaver has been 
described, for the most part, in that section giving a descripton 
of wire weaving. The principle duty of the operator is to watch 
the machine and to see that it is turning out the work as it should. 
He must oil it, and keep the parts sufficiently tight. Each opera- 
tor sets up his own machine, fixing the number of loops and 
twisters according to the height of fence being woven. If the 
weight of wire is to be completely changed from that used on the 
last bale woven, the operator must change the size of the loopers 
and twisters. If a different weight of strand wire is to be used, 
he must re-thread his machine throughout. All repairs are made 
by machinists. 

The work is usually routed for the week from the office in order 
to make the most economical use of the machines. One operator 
may work on one style of wire for the entire week, or he may, if 
occasion warrants, work on specialties making a number of dif- 
ferent styles. The work of the operator is reckoned on a piece 
basis. When a bale of fence wire has been made, the operator 
notes on a piece of paper the number of the loom and the number 
of rods in the bale. This is to aid the weigher in keeping his record 
of the day's production and the amount produced by each man. 

Special knowledge required. — The operator must be familiar 
with certain trade terms. The wire size is labeled but the opera- 
tor learns to judge it. He must be able to read order slips, such as 
10-47-12, meaning ten strands, forty-seven inches high, with 
twelve inches between stays. 

Special skill required. — In addition to the skill required to 
operate the machine, the operator needs the skill necessary 
to thread his loom. Threading consists in taking off the old wires 
putting on new, passing them through an oiling device over guide 
wheels, up through the twisters over a pull up mec;hanism and then 
onto the reel. He must also know how to cut the bale, take it 
off the loom and replace the reel in the proper position. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill and 



Chap. V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 61 

special knowledge must be acquired while serving as a helper. 
An ordinarily intelligent man can be taught to operate a loom in 
from ten days to one month's time. In this period of time, how- 
ever, he could not learn how to set up the machine for new work. 

Wages. — ^Operators work on a piece basis. Their wages are 
said to range from fifteen to twenty dollars per week and in rare 
instances to twenty-five dollars a week. All weavers are guaran- 
teed at least seventeen and one-half cents per hour. 

The Loom Operator's Helper 

What the worker does. — The helper finds the ends of the bales 
of wire and gets the wire ready for the welder to splice together. 
He puts on new bales over the drums and helps the operator 
remove the completed bale of fence from the machine and replace 
the reel in position. It is also necessary for the helper to watch 
the wire and keep it from becoming tangled. He may run the 
weaving machine, at short intervals, during the absence of the 
operator. 

Special knowledge required. — As the helper picks up the wire 
from piles near the loom, he must know the different sizes of wire. 
Keenness and alertness in watching for tangles is also necessary. 
He also needs some knowledge of the loom to enable him to throw 
it in and out of gear. 

Special skill required. — The skill necessary to take off bales 
and to put new ones on the loom; and also to prevent tangled 
wire and to remedy tangles when they occur is essential. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill and 
knowledge for this work are gained by observation and through 
instruction by the operator. At short intervals the helper is 
sometimes allowed to operate the loom. 

Wages. — Earnings and premiums depend on the operator's 
output. The helper's wages are on a piece basis and are said to 
range from ten and one-half to sixteen dollars per week. 

The Machinist 

The work of the machinist is described in Chapter VIII, 
''Railroad Repairing," etc. 



62 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Electric Welder 

What the worker does. — The purpose of welding the wire to- 
gether is to enable the machine to operate continuously, thus 
saving the time of the operator in shutting down the machine to 
re-thread it. The average time required for threading is ten 
minutes, as compared with one minute for welding. Welding is 
done by young men, each one tending 140 reels. The work is 
very simple. The worker takes the two ends of wire, clamps them 
in a clamping device, and turns on the electric current, thus mak- 
ing the weld. He then tests the weld by twisting it a few times, 
after which he grinds off the surplus metal until the wire is quite 
smooth. 

Special knowledge required. — The electric welder must have a 
knowledge of how long to apply the current so as not to burn or 
crystallize the wire. Sufficient knowledge of the welding machine 
so as to dismantle and assemble it, is also necessary. 

Special skill required. — Skill lies in adjusting the machine and 
in regulating the duration of the electric current. Workers also 
must be able to trace a short circuit. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Skill in welding 
may be acquired in about one day's practice on the job. 

The Inspector 

What the worker does. — After the wire has been woven in fence, 
an occasional roll is inspected to see if there are flaws and if it is 
up to standard specifications. The roll of fence is unwound and 
stretched by a semi-automatic device on a four-tier wooden 
frame. The inspector scans each tier for broken strands, strands 
not parallel and actual weaving defects." When defects are dis- 
covered, the roll is sent back to the weaver, whose number is in- 
dicated on the description card, attached to the roll, and the 
defects are remedied. 

Special knowledge required. — The inspector must have a thorough 
knowledge of the various kinds of woven fence, trade designation 
of wire, sizes and weave meshes, and standards of what constitute 
good weaving. 

Special skill required. — The inspector needs the ability to detect 
quickly any imperfections in the woven fence such as loose, 



Chap. V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 63 

crooked, or broken strands, too few strands, or other imperfec- 
tions. He must also be able to mount the roll of woven fence on 
the reel, run the stretcher and rewind the wire. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill and 
knowledge required are obtained by loom operating. The present 
inspector was a loom operator. He was chosen on account 
of his knowledge of good weaving and ability to detect flaws. 

The Inspector's Helper 

What the worker does. — The helper assists in placing on the 
reel the bale of wire chosen for inspection, and spreading it on the 
inspecting frames. He trucks the bale from the weaving to the 
inspecting room, drops it on the platform, loosens the stay wires 
and rolls the bale onto the reel. He then clamps the end wires 
to the cable, which, when actuated, draws the fence over the 
first, second, third and fourth tiers, respectively, of the inspecting 
frame, which is twenty rods long. The inspector examines the 
fence thus stretched, and, when thoroughly inspected, the helper 
rewinds the fence into a bale. 

Special knowledge required. — The helper works directly under 
the guidance of the inspector. The special knowledge required 
concerns the routine of procedure in stretching the wire on the 
frame and removing and rewinding it. 

Special skill required. — Since the inspector controls the motor 
which drives the drum about which the cable is wrapped in stretch- 
ing the wire, as well as all other controls, the skill required of the 
helper concerns only trucking and stretching the fence on the in- 
specting frame. 

The Laborer and Checker 

What the laborer does. — The laborer is employed in the shipping 
department and the warehouse. He trucks the woven bales of 
fence from the loom to the scales and then to the cars. He keeps 
stock fence in the warehouse, unloads bales of wire and loads 
tables of wire fence which are moved from place to place by the 
overhead crane. 

What the checker does. — The checker is employed in the shipping 
department and warehouse. He enters in a record book, the 



64 Occupational Information [Part II 

weight of each bale of fence loaded into the car, sees that each bale 
is the kind called for in the order, and that the correct number of 
bales of each kind are loaded in the car. The laborer assists the 
checker in recounting. 

Special knowledge required. — Both laborer and checker must 
have a knowledge of the company forms and various kinds of 
woven wire fence. 

Special skill required. — Both workers must be able to quickly 
handle heavy bales of wire, using ordinary hand trucks. The 
skill required is identical with that of the stevedore. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Knowledge and 
skill are obtained by working on the job under the foreman's 
direction. 

The Craneman 

What the worker does. — The craneman operates an overhead 
electric crane in the warehouse in moving wire bales from one place 
to another within the warehouse and also to the loading platform. 
A broad wooden platform, called a table, is loaded by the laborers 
with bales of wire fence; this is attached to the crane cable, and, 
upon signal, the crane operator moves the table to the indicated 
destination. 

Special knowledge required. — The craneman must thoroughly 
understand the crane controls, and also how to keep the crane 
in good repair. 

Special skill required. — The skill required concerns bringing 
the crane directly over the load to be carried, and operating the 
control devices. Alertness, good eyesight and strict obedience to 
orders are necessary requirements. 

The Sealer 

What the sealer does.— The loom operator affixes a tag to each 
bale of fence, indicating style number, number of rods and the 
weaving machine number. Each bale, so tagged, goes to the 
sealer. He removes the tag affixed by the loom operator, weighs 
the bale and records on a form sheet the weight and number of 
rods, style and weaving machine number. If the weight deviates 
above or below the three-pound marginal standard set, the sealer 
sends the bale to the inspector for remeasurement. 



Chap. V] Wire Fence Manufacturing 65 

Special knowledge required. — The sealer must have a workable 
knowledge of the company forms, of wh'e sizes and fence styles, 
as well as the scales and weighing standards. 

Special skill required. — The sealer must be able to move bales 
of wire quickly, to weigh quickly and accurately and also accurately 
record weights and standards on the company forms. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained on the job through instruc- 
tion given by the foreman. 

The Stockkeeper 

The Warehouse Foreman 

For the analysis of the work of stockkeeper and warehouse 
foreman, see Chapter XVII, '^Mercantile Traffic." 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The wire fence industry in Richmond gives employment to a 
few skilled machinists. Educational deductions about training 
for machinists are reported in Chapter VIII, '^Railroad Repair- 
ing," etc. 

The majority of the men in this industry are highly skilled 
power loom operators and helpers. The skill necessary for fence 
weaving can be obtained only by actual work in the industry. 



6—5463 



CHAPTER VI 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: LAWN MOWER 
MANUFACTURING 



The lawn mower industry is among the oldest in the city of 
Richmond and since its inception some sixty years ago, has made 
steady progress. The two establishments engaged in the manu- 
facture of lawn mowers make three distinct types of machines; 
hand, horse and power mowers. Of the three, the hand lawn mowers 
greatly exceed the others in number and value of output. One 
of the establishments manufactures fifty diffierent styles of hand 
lawn mowers. The industry, employing about 154 men in its 
manufacturing phases, may be considered one of the representa- 
tive types of production of Richmond. 

Manufacturing Routine 

How lawn mowers operate. — The construction of a lawn mower 
at first glance appears very simple, but on analysis is found to be 
made up of a large number of parts, each of which performs a 
certain definite service. The lawn mower cuts grass with a snip- 
ping motion like a pair of shears. Lawn mowers are equipped 
with double edged, spiral knives set on a cylinder, which, by means 
of gears, rotate in contact with the edge of a fixed knife blade or 
cutting bar. The cutting bar is placed at a tangent to the cylinder 
at a regulated distance above the grass to be cut, usually about an 
inch. In operating, the knives clip off the grass on the principle 
described. 

Parts in lawn mower construction. — To construct the various 
parts in this machine requires a large number of operations, chief 
of which concern themselves with pattern making, machining of 
small parts, assembling, painting, testing and boxing. Many 
of the parts are cast and require a number of machine proces- 
ses. As an index of the many parts which are required in lawn 



(67) 



68 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 69 

mower construction and the various operations to which they ai'e 
subjected, the following list of parts or operations involved is 
appended: 

Shafts- 
Drilling of shafting 
Broaching (widening) 
Fihng burr off broach 

Blades — 

Cutting and punching blades' 
Forming blades 

Spider — 

Straightening of spider under trip hammer 

Reaming 

Facing 

Punching 

Reel building — 

Assembling the reel blades and spider parts 
Riveting, gauging, drilhng 
Pinning and straightening reel 
Ball bearing assembling 
Rough grinding 

Making metallic sleeves — 

Pinion and pawls — 

Reaming pinions 

Cutting pawls and grass catcher blades 

Hardening pawls ; setting screws 

Cutter bar (knife blade) — 

Cutting and punching blade 

Riveting blade to cast bar 

Straightening bar 

Machining, facing and tapping end of bar 

Grinding front edge of blade 

Grinding face of blade 

Disc machining — 

Milling the spindle 

Drilling for ball cups 

Reaming for shrub guard 

Setting ball cups 

Drilling oil hole 

Cleaning for assembling room 

Shrub guard — 

Turning end of shrub 



70 Occupational Information [Part II 

Cast wheels — 

Machining 
Reaming 
Facing 
Running 

Final assembling — 

Rough assembling of parts 
Adjusting and filing 
Fitting of wheels 

Painting — 

Priming coat 

Finishing coat 

Padding 

Striping • 

Rollers — 

Putting on rollers and running of machine to ease up parts after 
being painted 

Packing boxes — 

Machine nailing of sides 

Machine nailing of bottom 

Packing and cleating of box and inserting direction sheet 

Machine nailing of top 

Handles — 

Stenciling 

Attaching cross piece to handle 

Varnishing (dipping) 

Iron handle braces — 

Cutting and punching 

Forming 

Rattling (cleaning) 

Dipping 

Brush work 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Foremen machine shop 6 

Pattern makers (see also Chapter VIII) 3 

Machinists or tool makers (see also Chapter VIII) 6 

Grinders 18 

Formers 2 

Drill press operators (see Chapter VIII) 34 

Punch press operators (see Chapter VIII) 3 

Reamer operators (see Chapter VIII) 

Facing operators (see Chapter VIII) 21 



Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 71 

Occupations and Number Employed — Continued 

Males 

Milling operators (see Chapter VIII) 

Forge workers (see Chapter VIII) 2 

Foremen of assemblers 2 

Assemblers 16 

Painters, stripers, padders, dippers and stencilers 29 

Inspectors 2 

Box makers 6 

Roustabouts (not analyzed) 4 

Total 154 

What the table shows. — The table shows that of 154 employees 
reported in representative occupations by the two establishments 
more than one-half are engaged in some form of machine opera- 
ting, grinding and bench work. Of the other factory occupations, 
painting is the work followed by the largest number with assem- 
bling next in numerical importance. 

Facts Cominon to All Workers 

Before analyzing the many occupations involved in lawn 
mower manufacture, there are certain points which may be treated 
in general. 

Routing of orders. — Orders are prepared in the office on type- 
written sheets, a copy of each sheet going to the foreman of each 
department. The foreman tells employees the number of each 
part to be made. Most of the work which has to do with machine 
operating is on a piece basis. The amount accomplished by each 
worker is checked up at the end of the da^^ 

Mental and physical requirements of workers. — The workers 
need to have ordinary pyhsical strength. No heavy parts are 
machined. Most of the work consists of operations on small and 
light parts. No great pyhsical strength is needed such as is re- 
quired for heavy machine operations. 

General education required. — Managers consider it desirable for 
men to have a common school education. Many of them need a 
knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic to keep their own 
time on their respective piece work jobs. 



72 Occupational Information [Part II 

Promotion. — There is no definite scheme of promotion and 
chances for promotion in this industry are shght. Occasionally a 
man is promoted from one machine to another. This usually 
enables him to earn higher wages. At rare intervals a worker may 
be raised to a foreman's position if the holder dies or leaves the 
employ of the company. Superintendents say that the sole factor 
governing promotion is the ability of the workman to bear the 
increased responsibility. Of the three foremen employed, two had 
come to their positions from the outside, while the third had 
worked up through the assembling room to foreman of that room. 

Source and selection of workers, — The workers, in practicall}^ 
all cases, secure their positions by personal application to the 
foremen or to the superintendent of the factory, since no employ- 
ment bureaus of any kind are maintained in Richmond. Men 
who have had machine shop experience, or who are machine opera- 
tors, are usually given preference over those who are not experi- 
enced. Most of the operations require a type of skill acquired in 
a short time. The machinist's occupation and a few others as 
pattern making, tool making and striping, require men who have 
learned their respective trades. 

After a man has been selected for a position, he is put through 
a '^trying out process." The superintendent watches his work 
closely every day for about a week and within that time he can 
tell whether the man is going to be able to do the work required. 
A foreman or gang boss puts a new man to work, instructs him 
in his duties and teaches him how to set and operate his 
machines. While a new man may spoil material by incorrect 
machining, the parts which are machined are usually small and 
of little value. 

Hours of labor. — The employees in the industry work a ten 
hour day. One establishment, however, closes shortly before noon 
on Saturday, making a working week of fifty-five hours as com- 
pared with a fift^-nine hour week in the other. 

Seasonableness. — Lawn mower manufacturing, while not strictly 
a seasonable industry, has a busy season extending from No- 
vember until May. During the slack season, while the plants 
are not shut down entirely, some of the workers are retained to 
help in repairing machinery and in invoicing. The slack season 
is of only a few weeks duration in midsummer. 

Hazard and inherent character of work. — In this industry ma- 



Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 73 

chines are usually well guarded but are crowded very closely 
together. Owing to the lack of proper placing of material and to 
the fact that parts to be machined must be lifted from the floor, 
workers lose much time and energy. This loss of time and strain 
on workmen could be overcome by placing parts on rolling trucks 
of the proper height. 

Wages. — Most of the workers are paid on a piece work basis- 
The average daily wage was said to be about two dollars and 
seventy-five cents. Some workers were said to receive from 
three and one-half to four dollars per week. 

The Machine Shop Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman of the machine shop acts 
also as superintendent. He has charge of the hiring of the men as 
well as direct charge of all machine operations. All orders come 
directly to him as well as to the foremen of the different rooms. 

Special knowledge required. — The foreman needs a complete 
understanding of every operation connected with lawn mower 
manufacture; a slight knowledge of metallurgy; and a thorough 
understanding of the operation of every machine used in the 
shop. 

Special skill required. — The foreman needs the skill necessary 
to operate any machine in the shop. Oftentimes in breaking in 
a new man he must teach the man how to operate the machine. 
At first the foreman or a skilled operator must set up machines 
for new men. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Skill and 
knowledge must be gained elsewhere, as there is no definite pro- 
vision for training or promotion in this industry in Richmond. 

The Pattern Maker 

Among the trades in the manufacture of lawn mowers, none 
exceed in importance the work of the pattern maker. He makes 
the patterns from specifications supplied by the office. These 
patterns are first made in wood and then usually in brass or 
aluminum, because the wood patterns will shrink, change in shape 
and wear out with little use. The former material is used on ac- 
count of its durability and the latter on account of its lightness. 
The pattern is a replica of the lawn mower part made to size from 



74 Occupational Information [Part II 

which a mold is formed in sand. The cavity corresponding to the 
pattern is filled with molten iron, which on cooling retains the 
shape of the original pattern. For details see section on the pat- 
tern maker in Chapter VIII, "Railroad Repairing," etc. 

The Machinist and Tool Maker 

The machinist and tool maker are, in their respective lines, as 
skilled as the pattern maker. The machinists do all the repair 
work on machines, grind cutting tools, do machine work on metal 
patterns and other light machine operations. The tool makers 
make shop tools such as jigs, snap gauges, and templates for 
the use of the machine operators in the common machine opera- 
tions. For details see section on the machinist and tool maker 
in Chapter VIII, ''Railroad Repairing," etc. 

The Grinder 

Among the more important machine operations connected 
with lawn mower manufacture is the grinding of the blades on the 
reel. The blades are first rough ground and then are given a 
finished grinding. 

What the worker does. — In this work the operator takes the reel 
and fastens it to a power driven clutch. The reel revolves very 
rapidly against the grindstone which turns about sixteen 
hundred revolutions per minute. The blades are drawn back 
and forth against the grindstone until they are considered suffici- 
ently well sharpened. During the operations a stream of water 
flows over the grindstone to prevent the loss of temper in the 
blades of the reel. 

Special knowledge required. — The superintendent said that there 
were two things by which the operator was guided : The strength 
of the spark which enables him to tell whether the reel is being 
ground evenly; the sound of the blades against the grindstone 
which enables him to tell when the reel should be taken off the 
frame. 

Special skill required. — The operator needs the skill necessary 
to see that the machine grinds the blade evenly and smoothly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Skill is obtained 
only at the work. 

Promotion. — In some cases workers are promoted from rough 
grinding to finished grinding. 



Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 75 

The Former 

What the worker does. — The forming operation consists of 
making the handle brace by pressing a short straight bar of iron 
into a Y shape. At the broad ends it is attached to the running 
gear of the mower and at the narrow end, to the handle The 
cold pressing process is followed. The operator takes the bar, 
lays it on the bed of a forming machine, places a die against it and 
starts his machine. By means of large gears sufficient pressure is 
exerted by the die coming in contact with the bar so that the bar 
is formed into the proper shape. 

Special knowledge required. — The special knowledge required 
is limited to knowing how to place the material in the machine, 
apply the power and remove the formed part. 

Special skill required. — Special skill is required in starting the 
forming machine. If started too quickly the gears will be stripped. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
skill is obtained only on the job. The skill is gained by repeating 
the operation again and again. 

The Drill Press Operator 

The Punch Press Operator 

The Reamer Operator 

The Facing and Milling Machine Operator 

The Forge Worker 

For the detailed analysis of the work and educational require- 
ments of all these workers in this, or other industries, see Chapter 
VIII, ^^Railroad Repairing," etc. 



The Assembling Foreman 

What the worker does. — The assembling foreman routes the 
work through his department and keeps up the output according 
to orders received from the office. 

Special knowledge required. — He needs a thorough knowledge 
of all assembling operations as well as a knowledge of lawn mower 
construction. 

Special skill required. — He needs the skill necessary to perform 
any of the assembling operations including adjusting bearings, 
filing blades, meshing gears, and reading direction sheets. 



76 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained.— By working up 
through the various occupations in the department a worker ob- 
tains the required knowledge and skill. 

The Assembler 

What the worker does. — In the rough assembling the worker 
takes the reel, cutter bar, side plates and wheels and assembles 
them roughly together. He then passes them over to another 
assembler at the next bench who tightens the parts and files the 
blades after trying them. The third operation consists in putting 
on the pawls, pinions, wheel rims and washers, and finally in 
lubrication. This completes the assembling except the placing 
of the wooden roller which is put on before the final inspection. 

Special knowledge required. — ^The knowledge to tell when 
running parts are correctly adjusted and a knowledge of the parts 
and use of each part in the lawn mower are necessary. 

Special skill required. — The work takes the mechanical skill 
which may be described as quickness, deftness and accuracy in 
making adjustments. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — -Special skill may 
be obtained by working at the job, starting as a rough 
assembler and working into the more advanced assembling. 

The Painter, Striper, Padder, Dipper and Stenciler 

What the painter does. — The painter places the lawn mower on 
a revolving circular table and lays on the paint with a thick heavy 
bi'ush. As he finishes painting one part and wishes to paint anoth- 
er, he revolves the table instead of the lawn mower. In painting 
the wheels the painter holds the brush against the wheel and 
revolves the wheel rapidly. 

What the striper does. — In striping, a short handled brush with 
long bristles is used. The stripes are made by drawing the brush 
in a straight or curved line across the part to be striped. No guides 
are used and the painter judges by his eye whether or not the line 
is straight or curved. This operation requires skill and is con- 
sidered one of the most important in the painters' trade. It is 
usually done by the room foreman. 

What the padder does. — Padding, a comparatively simple 



Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 77 

operation, consists in taking a cloth pad, dipping it in color and 
stamping it on the raised letters which are about the rims of the 
wheels. 

]Vhat the dipper and stenciler does. — Wooden lawn mower 
handles are purchased already turned and are first dipped in a vat 
of thin weather proof varnish and then hung up on racks to dry. 
Following this the wooden cross piece is attached to the handle. 
Preliminar}^ to varnishing, the handle is stenciled with the name 
of the company, or perhaps the trade name of the establishment 
where the consignment of lawn mowers is to be sent. 

Special knowledge required of all in painting work. — The 
painter in this industry needs but little special trade knowledge as 
it is common rough brush work. The striper must have a very well 
developed color sense, a knowledge of colors, and a thorough 
knowledge of pigment mixing. The padder requires no special 
trade knowledge. The dippers must know how to recognize and 
obtain the proper consistency of varnish. The special knowl- 
edge required of stencilers relates only to the proper position of 
the stencil on the handle of the mower. 

Special skill required of all in painting work. — The painter 
must be able to apply paint quickly, evenly and neatly on the 
metal surface of the mower. The striper should possess all the 
skill of the various branches of the painters' trade. This skill may 
or may not be gained through apprenticeship. The special skill 
required is the ability to make a straight or curved line quickly 
and artistically. This requires a steady wrist and very perfect 
muscular control and co-ordination. A padder need only the simple 
rudimentary manual skill involved in placing the pad upon the 
powder and then "padding" the letters. A dipper must be able 
to quickly immerse and remove the handle from the varnish, and 
the stenciler must put on the letters evenly with the proper spac- 
ing along the handle. 

How special knowledge and skill required of all in painting work 
are acquired. — The painter may acquire all necessary knowledge 
and skill on the job in a short period of time. The striper's skill 
can only be obtained by long and continued practice. The skill 
required of padders, dippers and stencilers may be acquired on the 
job in a very short period of time. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There is always 



7 8 Occupational Information [Part II 

danger of poisoning by lead, wood alcohol, turpentine and other 
chemicals entering into the composition of paint. Painters colic 
and wrist drop are among the diseases which may be contracted 
in this work. 

The Inspector 

What the worker does. — After the lawn mower has been painted, 
the roller attached and the running parts tried out on a revolving 
table, so as to free them from any paint adhering, it is given its 
final inspection. The inspector tries out the reel by spinning it 
and if necessary tightens or loosens the adjustment. He then at- 
taches a tag to it and the mower is ready for shipment. The opera- 
tor keeps a tally check of the number of machines examined. 

Special knowledge required. — For this work an inspector needs 
a complete knowledge of the running parts of a lawn mower. 

Special skill required. — The skill to make necessary adjustments 
quickly and effectively is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Only by fa- 
miliarity with the working parts of a lawn mower can adequate 
knowledge be acquired. The skill must be gotten by doing the 
work. 

The Box Maker 

What the worker does. — Three or four men operating box mak- 
ing machines make the sides and bottom of the box. The sides 
are first made, the operator holding two boards at right angles 
while an over-head arm on the machine falls on the release of a 
trip and drives in nails at one blow. After the sides have been 
attached, another operator puts on the bottom of the box in the 
same manner. The lawn mower is then placed in the box and 
cleated down by another workman. The top is nailed on by a 
third worker who operates another box making machine. The 
mower is then ready to be sent to the shipping room, or directly 
to the box car. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The lawn mower industry gives employment to some few 
highly skilled machinists, tool makers and pattern makers. Dis- 
cussions relative to school training for these trades are reported in 
the conclusion to Chapter VIII, ''Railroad Repairing," etc. 



Chap. VI] Lawn Mower Manufacturing 79 

The other Hnes of employment in this industry are: Machine 
operating, including drill press, punch press, reamer, and facer; 
assembling, painting, striping and padding painting, dipping and 
stenciling, and box making. In all of these occupations, as prac- 
ticed in the manufacturing of lawn mowers, the necessary skill 
and knowledge, according to the present standards and require- 
ments of the trade, may be obtained on the job without any 
special technical school education. 

The Richmond schools can, however, be of real service to 
machine operators and to the industry, by providing night school 
courses in machine operating and the general work of the machin- 
ist. Such courses, if taken by machine operators, would not 
only make them more efficient in their present work, but would 
afford an opportunity for those now confined to one machine, 
to learn to operate other machines, thus making promotion pos- 
sible. Under present factory organization, machine operators do 
not become familiar with the operation of types of machines other 
than those which they operate. The evening school has a real 
responsibility in providing this opportunity. 



CHAPTER VII 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: AGRICULTURAL 
IMPLEMENT MANUFACTURING 



The city of Richmond has long been known for its manufacture 
of agricultural implements. The first agricultural implements 
were made in Richmond in 1842. A patent was granted in 
the year 1858 to a manufacturer of threshers, and in the next year 
a holder of a patent for the manufacture of Hoosier drills made 
twenty-five ^^by horse power." He succeeded so well that a 
stock company was formed shortly after 1870 which gave employ- 
ment to from forty to fifty men and with annual sales averag- 
ing $114,000. The company manufactured one and two horse 
wheat drills. 

The development of the industry has more than kept pace with 
the growth of the city. New types of implements have been pro- 
duced, factories have multiplied, and in some cases combinations 
of factories have occurred. At present there are three large fac- 
tories engaged in this work, employing in their various depart- 
ments approximately one thousand persons, eight hundred of 
which are engaged in the manufacturing processes. Among the 
agricultural implements which are manufactured are threshers, 
silage cutters, corn drills., corn planters, hay balers and seeders. 

Uses and Manufacturing Processes 

The threshing machine. — The modern thresher stands as an often 
quoted but nevertheless true illustration of the possibilities reached 
by American invention along mechanical lines. It performs in 
itself the complete cycle of threshing operations; cutting the 
sheaves, feeding, separating the grain from the straw, winnowing 
and depositing the grain in stacks or loading it on wagons, and 
removing and stacking the straw. 

In one type of thresher the sheaf is fed in at a feed mouth and 
passed into a high speed hollow cylinder armed with radial teeth, 
which, as the cjdinder revolves, play between projecting teeth set 

(81) 
7—5463 



82 



Occupational Infokmation 



[Part II 




Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 83 

in a fixed concave or cylinder section. The concave is open and 
has in the rear an open grate so that a large part of the grain is 
separated from the straw at this point and conveyed to the fan. 
What is left is separated by further agitation secured by a vibrat- 
ing separator, revolving beaters and shaking forks. These de- 
vices beat the straw and convey it to the rear of the machine. 
The separated grain drops through the perforated bottom of the 
separator, and with the grain coming from the drum, is carried to 
the fanning mill by a vibrating platform or conveyor immediately 
beneath the separator. 

Manufacturing the threshing machine. — The first operations in 
the manufacture of a thresher are performed in the cutting room. 
The foreman makes out the bill of material which he gives to the 
man running the cut-off saw who cuts the stock into gross lengths. 
The cut stock then goes to the planer operator who planes it to 
the specified thickness, and from there to the rip-saw operator 
who rips it to gross width, after which it goes back to the planer 
or on to the moulder, or sticker, where it is reduced to the fin- 
ished width. The ^^finished stick" now may undergo a number of 
operations. If it is to be tenoned, it goes to the tenoning machine; 
if it is to be mortised, to the mortising machine, or it may go to 
the boring machine to be bored. It may also be re-cut to net 
length. 

The next operation for the ^'sticks" is the dipping. They are 
dipped in mechanically stirred paint which gives the priming 
coat. The pieces then go to the erecting room where they are 
placed on racks for the carpenters to use as needed. 

In the erecting room the iron work is received from the black- 
smith and machine shop. Here the separator body is built by 
the carpenters and the drum lining put on by the sheet metal 
liner. The separator body then goes again to the paint room, to 
be painted, varnished and stenciled. 

From the erecting room the separator passes to the fit-up 
room and here the accessories and small parts such as the shoe, 
chaffer and sieves, tool box, cylinder, concaves, pulleys and belts, 
self-feeder, wind stacker, tailings and elevator, are mounted. The 
feeder and wind stacker are built in other departments but in- 
stalled in the fit-up room. The machine is then tested under 
power and packed for shipment. 



84 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 85 

Manufacturing ensilage cutters. — The ensilage machine cuts up 
green corn stalks and blows them through a stack into a silo. The 
machine consists of a traveling apron or conveyor which carries. 
the corn stalk between a grooved rod and a toothed roll against a 
disc provided with two or four straight steel knives. The disc 
revolves about twelve hundred revolutions per minute, the knives 
passing within one-fourth inch of a shear plate, which corresponds to 
one blade of a pair of scissors and which aids in giving a straight 
sharp shear cut. Each disc is also provided with four fan wings that 
make a blast sufficient to carry the cut corn stalks up a sheet 
metal stack attached to the cutter, and from the stack into the 
silo. 

The ensilage cutter proper is made up of about twenty-five 
metal parts, some of which are cast and later machined before 
being assembled. Gears are cut and the finished machining is 
done in the machine shop. All the parts are assembled, the bear- 
ings made, and the entire machine set up and tested in the assem- 
bly department. 

Manufacturing hay balers. — ^A baler is used to press loose hay 
or straw into square, smooth, bales. One type of machine 
consists of a traveling carrier which takes the hay up to a retarder 
and compressor which in turn delivers it to reciprocating rakes. 
The rakes, operated by an eccentric crank drive, compress the hay 
or straw still further and take it across a feed hopper. A hay 
guard, through which the rakes operate, keeps the material prop- 
erly confined, w^hile a feeding device forces the hay into a bale 
chamber. While the hay is shut off in the bale chamber a block 
falls automatically, and, by means of twin gearing, condenses the 
bales. 

Unlike a thresher, a hay baler is made almost entirely of iron 
and steel. Gears, pulleys, shafting, bale board, bearings, and 
steel frames are the principal parts of the machine. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Mechanical expert 3 

Foremen, woodwork operators (see also Chapter VIII) 3 

Wood machine operators (see Chapter VIII) 83 

Foremen, machine shop 4 

Machinists (see Chaper VIII) 10 

Blacksmiths (see Chapter VIII) 27 



86 Occupational Information [Part II 

Occupations and Number Employed — Continued 

Males 

Tool makers (see Chapter VIII) 46 

Machine operators (see Chapter VIII) 94 

Foundry foremen (see Chapter VII) 6 

Foundry workers 269 

Pattern makers (see Chapter VIII) . 6 

Sheet metal liners 18 

Babbit metal workers 3 ^ 

Tinners 10 

Foremen, erectors and testers 6 

Erectors, assemblers and testers 146 

Foremen of painters 4 

Painters 47 

Miscellaneous occupations (not analyzed) 6 

Total 791 

What the table shows. — It will be noted from the table that 275 
workers, more than one-third of the total number, are engaged in 
some foundry occupation. These workers are not engaged en- 
tirely on castings for agricultural implements, but also do job 
work. Second to these occupations in numerical importance are 
the erectors or assemblers, almost twenty per cent, being so en- 
gaged. In fact, the number employed in these two, groups of 
occupations, coupled with the number employed as machine op- 
erators, constitute approximately two-thirds of all the workers in 
the manufacturing processes. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

General education required. — For all but the highly skilled 
trades a common school education is sufficient. In trades where 
work has to be laid out, such as in tinsmithing, a knowledge of plane 
and solid geometry is essential. The foremen, machinists and 
tool makers need a knowledge of blue print reading. The black- 
smith would profit by somie instruction in the elements of metal- 
lurgy. The pattern maker's general education should include a 
course in mechanical drawing, blue print reading, plane and solid 
geometry, metallurgy, and general foundry methods. 

Promotion. — A large number of foremen have worked up 
through their respective departments. Usually, however, before 



Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 87 

coming on the job they have had previous experience in agricul- 
tural implement concerns or in industries doing work similar to 
that in which they are now engaged. If a man shows himself, 
capable, he is advanced as rapidly as possible. Workers at times 
are shifted from one department to another. This allows of a pro- 
gression in jobs, but not a regular one and does not apply to all 
departments. 

Source and selection of workers. — The employees are chosen by 
the foremen of the different departments. The men secure their 
positions by interviews. Occasionally an official of the company 
may recommend a man to a foreman. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — The industry has no regular rush 
or depression periods, but the busiest period immediately precedes 
harvest, roughly from March to July. For about a couple of 
weeks in summer, a shut down may be made for repairs and the 
force then somewhat reduced. Many men from the building 
trades find employment in this industry during the slack build- 
ing seasons. The working week is fifty-seven hours from October 
to March and fifty-five hours the remainder of the year. There 
is little overtime. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The hazards involved 
in the industry are slight. The machines are properly spaced and 
fairly well guarded. The men stand at the work, working near 
windows where proper light is afforded them. The moulders and 
painters are exposed to the ordinary dangers of their occupations. 

The Mechanical Expert 

What the worker does. — The work of the mechanical expert 
corresponds somewhat to that of '^trouble hunter" in a telephone 
exchange. When a line of machines fail to work perfectly, or if 
certain improvements are not meeting popular demand, the me- 
chanical expert is sent to find out the trouble. If a large consign- 
ment is sent out, it is customary for the mechanical expert to ac- 
company it and watch the machines operate. In the operation of 
a machine the expert may notice a device not mechanically cor- 
rect. He determines how such a fault may be overcome in the 
next year's models. 

Special knowledge required. — A thorough knowledge of applied 
mechanics, a familiarity with various metals, stresses, strains and 



88 Occupational Infoemation [Pakt II 

other working knowledge of metallurgy, a knowledge of the work- 
ing parts of most kinds of agricultural machines, and how each 
part should operate, is essential. 

Special skill required. — ^The skill to set up, adjust, and repair 
any part of any agricultural implement is necessary. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The practical 
knowledge of agricultural implements may be best obtained in 
the industry, but the theoretical knowledge necessary can only 
be obtained by a technical school education 

The Foreman, Woodworking Operators 

See also Chapter IV, '^Automobile Manufacturing." 

What the worker does. — The foreman receives his orders from 
the office on typewritten slips of paper giving the number of pieces 
to be cut, and their dimensions. He lays out all new work. This 
requires the reading of blue prints. By means of the blue print, 
he makes a master pattern which is used as a guide by his em- 
ployees. The rip saw, planer, moulding machine, morticing ma- 
chine, jointer and other woodworking machines are set up by the 
foreman who must be able to operate them all. 

Special knowledge required. — The foreman needs a thorough 
knowledge of all woodworking machines, their operation, how to 
regulate and fit the different cutting tools and how to file and set 
saws. He must be able to read blue prints and from them make 
working models which are used as templates. He should be able 
to tell how long a machine operation should take and evaluate the 
quality of work done on each machine. 

Special skill required. — The foreman needs the skill necessary 
to operate any of the machines. He should be able to direct his 
men intelligently. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special skill 
and knowledge must be obtained before coming on the job. It is 
Msually gained by previous service in a woodworking mill. 

Wood Machine Operators 

Sawyers and operators of planers, joiners, moulders, etc., are 
required in the agricultural implement industry. For trade anal- 
ysis, see Chapter IX, ''Musical- Instrument, Casket and Furniture 
Manufacturing." 



Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 89 

The Foreman, Machine Shop 

What the worker does. — ^The machine shop foreman lays out the 
work for machinists, machine operators, vise men and other em- 
ployees in the shop, indicating exactly what is to be done, as well 
as the time allotment. He carefully watches the output and in- 
spects all work. 

Special knowledge required.— A thorough knowledge of the ma- 
chinists trade, including the knowledge of blue print reading, is 
required. 

Special skill required. — The skill necessary to operate and in- 
struct an operator on chuck and engine lathes, Gisholt machines, 
small boring mills, drill and punch presses, milling machines and 
other machines found in the ordinary machine shop, is required. 
The foreman needs the ability to advise and instruct about 
parts of separators, silage cutters and balers, the proper balance 
of such parts as separator discs, baler fly wheels, and the building 
of separator cylinders and other work distinctive of this industry. 

The Machinist 
The Blacksmith 
The Tool Maker 
The Machine Operator 

For the trade analyses of these workers in this, and other in- 
dustries, see Chapter VIII, ''Railroad Repairing," etc. 

The Foundry Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foundry foreman receives his orders 
from the office giving the number of castings of each pattern to be 
made. He gives these orders orally to the men. The orders 
usually call for from fifty to seventy-five castings. The work being 
on a piece basis, each man keeps a record of his production. This 
record is also kept by the timekeeper of the foundry. The fore- 
man advises the men about their work, the methods to follow and 
the materials to use. He does not perform any of the operations, 
as is common for foremen to do in other departments, but confines 
his duties solely to the executive side of the work. 

Special knowledge required. — -A practical knowledge of all 
foundry processes and a knowledge of certain automatic foundry 
machines, such as automatic squeezers and rappers, is essential. 



90 Occupational Information [Part II 

The foreman needs a thorough knowledge of moulding sands. He 
also needs a knowledge of the proper proportion of each of the con- 
stituents in a cupola charge. 

Special skill required. — The foundry foreman needs the skill 
necessary to enable him to direct a force of men who are not al- 
ways amenable to orders. He must also be able to show a new 
moulder how to go about his work. This requires the skill 
involved in any of the moulding operations. 

The Foundry Workers 
The Pattern Maker 

Moulders, moulders' helpers, core makers, sand cutters, clean- 
ers, tumblers and laborers and pattern makers are required in 
this industry. For trade description see Chapter VIII, ^'Railroad 
Repairing," etc. 

The Sheet Metal Liner 

What the worker does. — Certain parts of a separator must be 
lined with metal to reduce wear. The sheet metal worker lines 
the panels and drums of the separator with thin strips of sheet 
metal applied with nails. 

Special knowledge required. — This work requires only the knowl- 
edge necessary to lay and tack small pieces of sheet metal on 
wood. 

Special skill required. — The skill to make a covering of sheet 
metal quickly, effectively and with the least waste of material 
is necessary. It also requires the skill to use some sheet metal 
workers' tools. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill is ob- 
tained on the job. Previous experience in sheet metal work is not 
necessary. The worker is under the direction of the foreman of 
the erecting room. 

The Babbitt Metal Worker 

What the worker does. — In making babbitt metal bearings the 
worker heats the metal in a small forge and pours it from a ladle 
onto the three bearing surfaces of the silage cutter. The moulten 
metal is kept in place by a wall of specially prepared clay until 
thoroughly hardened. 



Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 91 

Special knowledge required. — The worker needs to know how to 
prepare the metal and the consistency at which to keep it. 

Special skill required. — The skill necessary to pour the metal so 
that a perfect bearing surface is made and to pack properly the 
part to be babbitted preparatory to pouring is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are acquired on the job through instruction 
from the foreman. A very short period of time is required. 

The Tinner 

What the worker does. — Separators and silage cutters are usu- 
ally metal lined. A number of parts, such as delivery pipes, 
stacks, shoots and shoot rests, are made of galvanized iron. The 
work is done by a contract tinsmith and his assistant. In the 
forming of sheet metal pipe, various machine processes are used. 
The galvanized metal is first put into a roller and rolled, after 
which it goes to a lapper which turns the ends one over another, 
holding them together in a loose fold. Following this the pipe is 
seamed. Some of the pipe is purchased in cat lengths. The pipe 
is usually covered with malleable iron rings which the tinners 
bolt on. 

Another form of pipe made is the flexible elbow. This is made 
in short sections resembling truncated cones with each section 
collapsing into the one below it. Hoods also are made in short 
square and rectangular sections jointed together. In making these 
parts the tinner lays out the work "in the flat" and then '^makes it 
up" in the manner described. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker needs to know the use 
of ordinary tinsmithing machines, such as the shearing machine, 
rolling and lapping machines, hand shears, and soldering irons. 
He needs a rudimentary knowledge of plane and solid geometry 
and the rules of mensuration in order to lay out his work accur- 
ately and with the most economical use of materials. The rud- 
iments of mechanical drawing are also necessary. 

Special skill required. — The skill necessary to make pipe, dis- 
tributors, elbows and hoods in an accurate, economical and rapid 
manner is essential. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The contractor 
obtains this knowledge and skill by working at the trade. The 



92 Occupational Information [Part II 

helper works under the instruction of the contractor. The trade 
appHcations may be obtained on the job, but the worker can never 
learn the proper methods of lay out without a serious study of the 
applied principles of plane and solid geometry, mensuration and 
projection. 

The Foreman of Erectors and Testers 

What the ensilage erector foreman does. — The ensilage erector 
foreman has charge of the assembling and testing of silage cut- 
ters. He gives out the work according to typewritten orders re- 
ceived from the office. He also erects some machines each week 
and keeps a list of the entire weekly production. The foreman 
instructs and advises men in his department in their respective 
occupations. At times he lays out work on ensilage stackers. 

What the thresher erector foreman does. — The foreman has 
charge of the assembling work of separators and threshers. He 
lays out the work for each erector. On new patterns he makes 
the first model, working from blue prints. He directly supervises 
the work of the erectors who take the lumber cut to size in the 
cutting room and assemble it. He also supervises the work of 
two or three metal workers who make linings for the drum of the 
separator. The foreman also does part of the actual work of 
assembling. 

• What the thresher testing foreman does. — After the thresher is 
erected, a line of belting is attached in order to try it out under 
power to see if the belts and shafting are in proper alignment, 
whether the bearings show a tendency to heat and whether all 
working parts of the machine are operating properly. This work 
is done by the foreman and his assistants, who also fit keys and 
line shafting preparatory to the test. - 

Special knowledge required of all foremen. — All foremen must 
have a thorough working knowledge of each part of the machine, 
including how it is manufactured, what function it is expected to 
perform, and how to adjust various parts in order to attain the 
machine's maximum efficiency. He also needs a knowledge of all 
tools and machines used by all workmen in their respective de- 
partments. 

Special skill required of all foremen.- — ^The foremen must possess 
all the technical skill of all erectors, and in addition to this, have 
ability to direct and manage the men under them. 



Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 93 

How special knowledge and skill of all foremen are obtained. — 
Many foremen have attained the basis of required knowledge and 
skill in operating agricultural machinery on farms, and in assem- 
bling implements in agricultural establishments. Some foremen 
have been drawn from cabinet shops, automobile and furniture 
factories. Technical skill may be obtained in the manners men- 
tioned, but the necessary technical knowledge about the theory 
of mechanics can only be obtained by technical school education. 

The Erector, Assembler and Tester 

What the ensilage erector does. — The new worker is usually as- 
signed to bolting the angle irons to the skids, attaching the legs 
and putting the drum on the frame. Other workers perform bench 
and assembly work on the metal parts such as chipping, filing, 
putting in key seats and vise work. In this work a wide variety 
of hand tools are used, including braces, bits, cold chisels, files, 
drifts, gauges and scrapers. A major part of the work is filing and 
scraping the parts until they fit perfectly and then assembling 
them in their proper places on the cutter. 

What the thresher erector does. — The erector has usually been a 
carpenter who shows sufficient ability to build the body of a 
thresher. The lumber with which the body of the thresher is 
built has been previously cut to size and shape in the cutting ^oom 
and is installed in well arranged bins in the erecting room. The 
worker, under the direction of the foreman, does all the erecting, 
not only building the frame of the separator but installing the 
various metal parts such as the drum, concaves and other parts 
which have been received from the blacksmith shop and the ma- 
chine room. 

Some of the woodworking operations are pecuhar to the mak- 
ing of a separator. The erector must learn to arch decks and 
cut away a proper space for the installing of a drum. Part of the 
work, such as bracing the frame with steel trusses and bolting and 
rodding it together, naihng panels to girts and posts, and laying 
sills, is ordinary carpenter's work. 

What the ensilage tester does. — After the cutter has been set up 
the tester belts it to an electric motor and tests it for alignment, 
balance and running quality. The machine is run at varying 
speeds, both forward and reverse, as long as the tester considers 
necessary to enable him to discover any flaws in the running parts. 



94 Occupational Information [Part II 

If flaws are discovered, the machine is sent back to be adjusted, if 
not, he attaches a card initialed with his O. K. indicating that the 
cutter is ready to be sent out. 

Special knowledge required of erectors and testers. — All erectors 
and testers must be able to recognize all of the various parts of the 
machine and must know how to assemble each piece in its proper 
place and position. 

Special skill required of erectors and testers. — All erectors and 
testers must have the ability to use wood, hand and machine tools; 
these include the carpenter's tools such as hand saws, braces, bits 
and hammers, and metal work tools such as files, shears, hammers 
and cold chisels. 

How special knowledge and skill of all erectors and testers are 
o6^amec^.— According to the present standards and requirements 
of the industry, all necessary knowledge and skill may be ob- 
tained while working on the job. 

The Foreman of Painters 

What the worker does. — The foreman directs the work of all 
painters and does stenciling, striping and transfering of trade 
pictures. 

Special knowledge required. — A knowledge of the painter's 
trade; how to mix paints, oils and varnish, the consistency at which 
they should be used; the different kinds and uses of fillers, oils and 
varnish, and the preservative qualities of varnish is necessar5^ 

Special skill required. — The skill necessary to do artistic strip- 
ing, to place transfers evenly spaced and in the most effective po- 
sitions, and the ability to direct a small force of workers on rough 
and finished painting operations is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are generally obtained during the painters appren- 
ticeship. 

The Painter 

What the worker does. — Two kinds of painting operations are 
done on the frames of separators and balers; dipping and brush 
work. The lumber, after^being cut to size, is dipped in mechan- 
ically stirred paint to gi\e it the filler coats. _ The worker on this 



Chap. VII] Agricultural Implement Manufacturing 95 

job usually spends about half a day at this work and the remain- 
der of the day in brush work. Following the erecting operation 
the finished separator or baler comes to the painting depart- 
ment to be painted and varnished. These are ordinary brush 
work operations done with a broad thick brush. 

Special knowledge required. — It is essential that the painter 
have a knowledge of color values and some knowledge of color 
harmony. A knowledge of how to thin paints and a knowledge of 
fillers, paints, oils, varnishes and when to use them is necessary. 
An understanding of the hygiene of the occupation would be 
very beneficial. 

Special skill required. — The same grade of skill required by the 
ordinary painter in putting on body coats is sufficient. A manip- 
ulative skill which enables the painter to lay on paint evenly and 
quickly is required. In varnishing the work must be done so 
that the brush marks will not show, which necessitates a broad, 
smooth, quick stroke. The dipper needs little skill except to see 
that the board which he holds in the paint vat becomes entirely 
covered with priming. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Usually the 
special knowledge and skill are obtained by previous experience 
in some form of painting. This work does not require a highly 
skilled type of painter as all work is done under the supervision 
and direction of the foreman of the department. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The agricultural implement industries of Richmond give em- 
ployment to skilled moulders and foundry workers, machinists, 
blacksmiths, tool makers and pattern makers. Deductions about 
training for these trades are recorded in the conclusion of Chapter 
VIII, '^Railroad Repairing," etc. 

The trades which are peculiar to this industry, including erec- 
tors, sheet metal liners, dippers and painters, require no special 
V ocational education for entrance or proficiency according to pres- 
ent standards and requirements. The Richmond Evening School 
can best discharge its function for workers in these occupations by 
encouraging them to enroll in the general evening courses, and in 
the trade extension courses in blue print reading, and metal and 
wood power machine operating. 



CHAPTER VIII 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: RAILROAD RE- 
PAIRING, MACHINE TOOL MANUFACTURING 
AND OTHER METAL INDUSTRIES 

In this chapter are grouped the occupational descriptions of 
all the metal trades of Richmond common to many lines of man- 
ufacturing but not peculiar to particular industries, together with 
metal trades which are followed in distinctively metal industries. 
Thus, the description of the work of all machinists, whether prac- 
ticed in an agricultural implement, wire fence or auto factory, is 
included in this chapter rather than in those describing the respec- 
tive industries mentioned. Also, the description of all trades 
practiced in the manufacture of multiple drills are here recorded, 
as all the occupations in this industry are essentially of the metal 
trades group. 

Railroad Repair Shops 

Scope of work done. — Being a division point of the Pennsylvania 
Lines, Richmond is a repair center for making general repairs on 
engines and freight cars, and occasionally on passenger coaches. 
The work includes overhauling, supplying and inspecting en- 
gines, freight cars and coaches. 

There are two repair shops: The ''old shop" where engines 
are repaired, supplied and inspected; and the ''east yard shop" 
where cars of the company, and foreign roads, are repaired and 
rebuilt. " 

Shop organization. — In both shops work is carried on day and 
night. In the old shop two twelve-hour shifts are run, while at 
the east yard each shift works ten hours. In both shops a seven- 
day week is observed. 

The outline which follows shows in detail the occupations of 
the old shop classified in the descending order of importance. 
The occupations in bold face type are the more important ones and 
are largely directive in their nature : 

(97) 
8—5463 



98 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 






^3 








— OJ 










sad hostler 

s 

harf operators 
ation laborers 
ble operators 
ouse laborers 
) laborers 
plant laborers 








11 






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stler 
al w 
el St 
rnta 
tid h 
hpit 
wer 






'o"o 






mw 


O O 13 ;3 ^ cc o 






MOfeHcc^fc 







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r 

er 

ler 

ector 

;men 

men 

,ors 

ectors 

rs 

ad 


2^ 




Head Machin 
or 
Gang Lcade 


Lubricator fllle 
Grease cup fill 
Driving box fil 
Headhght insp 
Running repau 
Machine shop 
Engine inspect 
Air brake insp' 

and helpei 
Pipe fitters 
Blacksmiths ai 

helDcrs 


aft 
^•2 ft 

III 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 99 

Routine in engine repairing. — The engine is delivered to the 
coal dock. The hostler supplies water and coal, drives it to ash 
pit, and knocks the fire out. The ash pit man cleans the ash 
pan, and the hostler finds out which way to turn the engine. It 
is then run in the roundhouse and the engine inspector thoroughly 
inspects the engine and mechanical parts. As the same time the 
boiler inspector thoroughly inspects the boiler and flues and 
caulks all leaks. The engine is now fired and the engine inspector 
makes out his report of the work to be done on the mechanical 
parts of the engine. The gang leader next distributes the work 
among the men under his authority, and sees that the proper re- 
pairs are made. The engine is finally offered to the transportation 
department as ready for service. 

It is the policy of the shop, whenever possible, to make running 
repairs without shopping the engines. At all times there is kept 
on hand between $40,000 and $50,000 worth of stock material for 
repair work. Repair work is done primarily by machinists' 
helpers. 

Routine in car repairing. — The initiatory inspector determines 
the repairs which must be made. The inspector then ''checks off" 
the work on what is called a job card. This card is placed in the 
office and the workmen choose whatever piece of work they care to 
do. They draw the material for making repairs and do the work 
indicated, after which they return the sheet. The finished piece- 
work inspector checks the work to see that it has been done in 
accordance with directions. His 0. K. means that the car is now 
ready for service. Most of the work is on a piece basis but, in 
case of a wreck-job, car repairmen composing the wrecking crew, 
receive time and a quarter. 

One branch of the work is repairing cars for foreign roads. 
There is a general agreement between the roads that foreign cars 
are to be repaired wherever the damage occurs and the bill for 
the work sent to the company which owns the car. 

Machine Tool Manufacturing 

Products and scope of work. — The products of machine tool 
manufacturing in Richmond are high speed multiple drills. Steel 
is received in bars and sawed and machined into parts. The 
castings are made in outside plants according to patterns furnished 
by the company. Cast and machined parts are assembled into 
units, after which units are assembled into complete multiple 



100 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 







i 


r^.^ik:iiMiii^^^ 





A Universally Adjustable Multiple Drill with Twelve One and One-quarter- 
inch Spindles. 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industkies 101 

drills. The radial drill has the following units in its construction: 
Heads, speed boxes, feed boxes, tapping attachments, tables, feed 
plates, columns, bases, oil systems, universal joints and adjustable 
arms. The making of these units involves a considerable number 
of operations such as turning, grinding, tempering, boring and 
milling. About one-half of the working force is employed in ma- 
chining, and operating automatic screw machines and turret 
lathes. 

Shop organization. — This is one of the very few industries in 
Richmond in which there is any type of apprenticeship. Appren- 
tices are employed in the machine shop, the tool room and the 
drafting room. In the machine shop the period of apprenticeship 
is four years. At the end of the first year apprentices are pre- 
sented with a set of machine tools and a micrometer. 

Due to the nature of the industry, and the product manufac- 
tured, a high type of mechanic is needed. This need cannot be 
met locally at the present in Richmond. The company now im- 
ports many machinists. 

Machinists and operators must be able to read blue prints and 
use all types of measuring instruments in addition to operating 
all types of metal working machines. 

The work is not seasonable. The working week for the day 
shift is fifty-eight and one-half hours, and for the night shift sixty- 
two and one-half hours. 

Manufacturing Track Derailers 

Products and scope of work. — Track derailers are metal con- 
trivances which deflect the wheels of a railroad car from the track. 
They consist of two parts, a block which receives and deflects the 
wheels and a guide box which holds the derailing block in place. 
The parts are cast in an outside shop and then machined. The 
work involves simple machine operations and a type of worker 
corresponding to the foundry laborer is employed. 

Shop organization. — The industry gives employment to a drafts- 
man, pattern maker, switch sign painter, and a considerable 
number of men, former foundry laborers, who do the very rough 
machine work. Physical strength is the prime requirement for 
workers in this industry. Promotion is infrequent. As the pro- 
ducts, may be stored, awaiting deliveries of future orders, the work 
is not seasonable. The majority of the workers receive from $2 
to S2.25 per day. 



102 



Occupational Information [Part II 




A Universally Adjustable Multiple Drill with Direct Connected Motor. 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 103 

Manufacturing Roller Skates 

Products and scope of work. — Various types of roller skates are 
made in Richmond. Although a roller skate is a comparatively 
simple piece of mechanism it consists of approximately 175 parts. 
Most of the parts used, including axles, screws, balls, dust caps, 
rivets and straps, are purchased made up. There are, however, 
from twelve to fifteen operations through which some of the larger 
parts are carried before going into a skate. 

The principal operations are punching the foot plate, forming 
and tempering the foot plate and screwing and riddling the small 
parts. In addition, there are such operations as drilling, tap- 
ping, assembling trucks (the part of a skate to which the axles are 
attached), adjusting, forming springs and putting them in, mak- 
ing pins, cutting and threading axles, planing key ways, riveting 
straps and riveting metal parts. The rollers go through some 
three or four operations, including turning, varnishing, driving 
and clinching to the metal part which covers them. The wood 
wheel of a roller skate is covered with a heavy steel band or tire 
which is forced on or clinched under great pressure. This makes 
the wheel one solid body, the wood forming a complete support 
for the steel band. 

Shop organization. — The few men employed in this industry 
perform all the various operations. One day the whole force may 
be engaged in assembling skate parts, or the next, the whole force 
may be employed turning the wood core for the skate wheels. 
Thus, men ''handy with tools," rather than men skilled in vari- 
ous trades, are employed. The promotional range is very lim- 
ited. The busy seasons are from August to November and from 
March to June. The plant is shut down for a short period of time 
during the summer. 

Manufacturing Ventilating and Greenhouse Apparatus 

Products and scope of work. — Among the greenhouse fittings 
manufactured are 1: rackets, joints, pipe carriers and hinges. Ven- 
tilating apparatus includes several kinds of patent metal sash. 
Heavy parts are cast in outside shops and then ground, drilled 
and turned when necessary. Parts are assembled, dipped or 
painted, and subsequently packed for shipment. 



104 Occupational Information [Part II 

Shop organization. — Work in this industry requires men of 
ordinary health, strength and common school education. The 
work follows a set routine. Promotion is very unlikely. ''Handy 
men" are the type required. The rush season is between March 
and June. During the year there is likely to be a month's over- 
time work. 

Manufacturing Fire Escapes, Fire Doors and Safety 

Gates 

Products and scope of work. — Fire escapes and doors are made 
according to builders' specifications. In making fire escapes the 
principal operations are cutting strip metal to size, shaping, drill- 
ing, assembling, bolting and riveting; while in the making of 
safety gates and fire doors the principal operations are shaping 
sheet metal over wooden doors and attaching hinges. Sheet metal 
workers, tin smiths, carpenters and blacksmiths are required. 

Shop organization. — One worker in each department must be 
able to read architects' building blue prints. This worker directs 
the other men, whose skills are of the operative and assembling 
type. Promotion is uncommon. The industry follows the build- 
ing trades in terms of seasonableness. The fall season lasts from 
September to Christmas and the spring season from March to 
July. Old employees are retained throughout the year. 

Automobile Repairing and Truck Manufacturing 

Products and scope of work. — All Richmond garages make re- 
pairs and adjustments on automobiles. Such repairs may include 
the making of all mechanical adjustments, grinding valves, clean- 
ing the carbon out of cylinders, boring (cylinders, making valves 
for motors, turning cups and cones for ball bearings, and making 
parts within the capacity of the following machines: Planer, 
mill machine, key seater, drill press, lathe and hack saw, all run 
by electric power. 

In the manufacture of automobile trucks, as carried on by one 
establishment, the castings are purchsed outside. The machine 
work on the rough castings of the engine, transmission, front axle 
and frame, is done in the establishment. Other parts are bought 
from other companies and assembled. 

Shop organization. — In the automobile machine shop all repair- 



CiiAP. VIII] META.L Industries 105 

men are required to do all types of repair work. Owing to the na- 
ture of the work, hours are likely to be very irregular. The rate 
for over-time and night work is higher than for day work. 

General Machine Jobbing 

Products and scope of work. — Jobbing machine shops, of which 
there are several in Richmond, take work of widely varying kinds. 
Small parts for printing presses, elevators, steam and gas engines 
are made; machines are torn down, parts replaced and adjusted; 
metal patterns are made and finished; metal store fronts, metal 
cases and fire escapes are made and installed; in fact, almost any 
kind of a job requiring the services of well trained machinists 
may be taken. 

Shop organization. — ^Any machinists in the employ of any job- 
bing machine shop may be required to operate any machine, use 
any metal working hand tool, any gauge or measuring instrument, 
and read all types of blue prints. Highly skilled, ''all around" 
machinists and metal w^orkers are employed. The constant vari- 
ety of work and new problems serve as a mental stimulus to work- 
ers and tends to prevent the losing of interest in work, so common 
among workers in industry. Employment is constant the year 
around. The small job shop, however, is usually located in a 
small converted building with all the usual inadequacies of light, 
heat and ventilation. 

General Foundrying 

Products and scope of work. — There are several shops in Rich- 
mond producing exclusively brass and iron foundry products, and 
several large manufacturing estabUshments which operate their own 
foundries, and also take jobbing and general foundry contracts for 
other shops and factories. Among foundry products are parts of 
agricultural implements, lawn mowers, automobiles, farm wagons, 
pianos, roller skates, all of which are cast from iron; and trolley 
wheels, pens, harps, motor axle bushings, journal bearings, trolley 
cars, connector arms, connectors and piano pedals, all of which 
are cast from brass and bronze. 

Shop organization. — Foundry work includes the occupations of 
iron moulder, brass moulder, core maker, moulder's helper, and 
cupola tender and assistant, aside from the foreman. Finishing 



106 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




A Modern Foundry Building with Adequate Provision for Ventilation. 



occupations are shaking out, tumbling, grinding, filing; and with 
brass and alloys, often plating and polishing. The foreman is 
responsible for all phases of moulding and casting. The bulk of 
moulding work in Richmond is on a piece basis. There are no 
moulders' apprentices in Richmond at present, and the trade is 
gradually being taken over by foreigners, the majority of whom 
do not possess the all around skills of the moulders of the last de- 
cade. Specialization and use of machines permit the less skilled 
type of labor to perform the routine work more or less satisfac- 
torily. Each moulder has a helper. The work is constant 
throughout the year. 

Founding is a fundamental phase of industry, but in Rich- 
mond it is to be regarded as one branch of the agricultural imple- 
ment industry rather than as an independent one. As the 
foundries in agricultural implement plants do job work, there are 
few independent foundries in the city. 

No large work, such as loam work, is carried on, most of the 
parts cast being small in size and are made by bench and floor 
moulders. Brass moulding is done in two establishments as part 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 107 

of the process of manufacturing other products. Following the 
general custom these establishments also do job work. 

Into a cupola or furnace is dumped the mixture of pig iron, 
scrap iron, slag and limestone over a layer of coke. Following 
this same order the cupola is filled almost to the top with layers of 
coke, iron and sandstone. Fire is applied from below and the 
mass heated until it becomes molten. Shortly before the charge 
is drawn an air blast is applied to hasten combustion. 

When the charge shall be drawn is determined by the cupola 
tender who looks into a peep hole in the base of the cupola and 
determines by the consistency of the mass, and also by drawing 
off a ladleful of metal, the proper time for drawing it. 

Previous to pouring, the moulders and core makers have made 
moulds and cores. The moulders work with metal or wood pat- 
terns furnished them by the pattern makers. 

The moulders and helpers gather round the cupola with iron 
ladles just before pouring off. As the metal issues from the cupola 
spout they fill their ladles and carry them quickly to the moulds 
which are arranged in long rows on the floors. Each mould in 
turn is filled with metal and then left to cool. A gang of cleaners, 
some hours later, break the moulds and take out the castings. 
The rough edges and "gates" are then ground or filed off and the 
casting cleaned or tumbled preparatory to being machined. 

Manufacturing Automobile Fenders and Gasoline Tanks 

Products and scope of work. — The presence of the automobile 
industry in Richmond, has occasioned the local manufacturing of 
fenders, hoods and gasoline tanks. The industry is in the inter- 
esting transition period from the craft to the factory basis. The 
proprietor is a skilled sheet metal worker, and so were all his first 
employees, but with the standardization of fenders, hoods and 
tanks, it became possible to substitute for the general sheet metal 
worker who was skilled in all phases of his work, the operator 
whose work is confined to one or two special machines and tasks. 

Shop organization. — The proprietor is general manager. In 
the construction of fenders, a model is first made by hand, and if 
satisfactory in design and construction, adopted as a pattern. 
Sheet metal of standard size and gauge is required. The marker 
traces the pattern on a single sheet, after which the cutter feeds 
the sheet in a shearing machine, cutting the stock to pattern size. 



108 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 109 

The next operation is wire binding. The operator of the wiring 
machine places the sheet metal between the two wheels, one 
above the other, and as the metal plate is fed through, it is bent 
over on one and under on the other, resulting in the enclosure of 
the wire. Next is the forming operation by which the metal is 
given the fender shape. It is then smoothed, after which it is 
crowned. Brackets are then mounted and the assembling pro- 
cess completed. Spot welding is rapidly supplanting riveting. 
After being thoroughly cleaned, it is enameled and baked. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Machinists and helpers 185 

Machine operators .256 

Railroad master mechanic (not analyzed) 1 

Railroad gang leaders (not analyzed) 5 

Engine house foreman and assistants 3 

Hostlers (not analyzed) 5 

Boiler makers and helpers 10 

Car repairmen and helpers 87 

Railroad shop laborers 66 

Tool makers. 60 

Blacksmiths 66 

Assemblers (see also Chapters IV, VI and VII) 50 

Sheet metal workers (see also Chapters VII and XI). . . 62 

Dippers and enamelers (not analyzed) 10 

Pattern makers 25 

Foundry foremen 5 

Moulders and helpers 136 

Core makers 43 

Cupola tenders 6 

Cleaners, grinders and foundry laborers 101 

Total 1,182 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Source and selection of ivorkers. — In all metal working depart- 
ments of Richmond shops and factories where a foreman is in 
charge, he employs all workers, subject, however, to the approval 
of the manager or superintendent. In some foundries the con- 



110 Occupational Information [Part II 

tract system is followed, and in these cases the contractor hires 
and discharges at will. Moulders frequently employ their own 
helpers. There are no employment agencies or offices in connec- 
tion with any of the Richmond manufacturing establishments. 

Mental and physical requirements. — A type of natural mental 
ability equal to or above the average is required for successfully 
pursuing these metal trades; — machinist, boiler maker, head car 
repairman, tool maker, sheet metal layer out, pattern maker, fore- 
man moulder, and cupola tender boss. The worker with average 
initiative and good health may become a successful machine 
operator, car repairman, blacksmith and moulder. For drill 
press operating, according to present standards in the lawn 
mower and other Richmond industries, practically any male, not 
mentally deficient, can do the work. Laborers, blacksmiths and 
moulders must be very strong physically, capable of doing heavy 
lifting without strain and of enduring long hours of physically 
hard work. 

General education required. — Laborers, core makers, assemblers, 
moulders' helpers, and drill press operators, actually need only 
enough general education to understand verbal orders, to com- 
pute time spent on jobs, and to figure the day's earnings. The 
rudimentary phases of reading, writing and arithmetic are en- 
tirely adequate. Thus, a sixth grade education is sufficient for 
the actual working requirement of these jobs. 

Machinists, boiler makers, car repairmen, tool makers, black- 
smiths, sheet metal workers, pattern makers, moulders and cupola 
tenders actually need a broad enough general education to afford 
a foundation for trade mathematics, plan drawing and reading, 
metallurgy, strength and composition of materials, and trade 
science related to welding, brazing and foundry work. A com- 
plete elementary education is necessary and a high school educa- 
tion is desirable. All prospective metal workers in these trades, 
should complete the full Junior high school course as outlined in 
other sections of this report. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Serious temporary 
and permanent injuries to workers in the metal trades may result 
from heavy lifting, undue exposure to extremes of temperature, 
inhkling gases and free metallic dusts, exposure to blinding light, 
burns from molten metal and injury from unguarded machines. 

Railroad machinists, machine operators, boiler makers, car 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 111 

repairmen and laborers are exposed to all extremes of temperature 
from the interior of the engine with a temperature of 100 degrees 
to the freezing temperature of winter. They are also liable to 
severe back strains from heavy lifting and to injury to the pul- 
monary tract from exposures to free metallic dust. Boiler mak- 
ers often become partially and totally deaf. Blacksmiths and 
sheet metal workers may receive eye injuries from the oxy- 
acetylene welding process, unless they protect their eyes by 
wearing colored glasses or goggles. The feet and ankles of 
moulders, their helpers, and foundry laborers are often burned 
with molten metal in the pouring of the moulds. The wearing 
of Congress shoes is a protection to these workers. One com- 
pany furnishes these shoes at cost to workers. 



The Machinist and Helper 

Machinists and helpers are employed in railroad repair work, 
machine, tool and other manufacturing plants, small job shops, 
automobile repair shops and in upkeep and tool work in practically 
all plants in Richmond. The analysis which follows is organized 
on the basis of the particular employment. 

What the railroad machinist does. — In the railroad repair shop 
such running repairs are made as are necessary to keep the loco- 
motive in service perhaps for only a single run, or until it may be 
thoroughly overhauled. One machinist does practically all the 
machine work on lathes, drill presses, and shapers in the repair 
of bearings, crank pins, shafts and other engine parts. The 
helper makes the running and shop repairs after the parts are 
made, also the dissembling and assembling of parts. At odd 
times he may be permitted to do some of the easy machine work. 

The engine parts most frequently repaired are pistons, con- 
necting rods, bearings, throttles, injectors, and steam gauges. 
There is a tendency toward specialization in work, as one man is 
usually assigned to test and repair steam gauges, another to re- 
pair injectors, and another to remove broken parts. All receive 
their working orders from the gang leader or the assistant engine 
house foreman. 

What the machinist does in manufacturing. — In the manufac- 
turing of high speed multiple drills, the machinist works from a blue 
print from which he obtains all his measurements. He must be 



112 Occupational Information [Part II 

able to set up his own job and to operate skilfully planers, lathers, 
large boring mills and radial drills. As all operations are timed, 
he must work with speed as well as with precision. The machin- 
ist must thoroughly understand the use of micrometers and cal- 
ipers, and be able to produce a finished part varying not more than 
six one-thousandths of an inch from the standard. 

In manufacturing fire escapes, fire doors and track derailers a 
lesser degree of accuracy is entirely acceptable. The machinist 
works from blue prints, which are received from the office or from 
architects and building contractors. In the small plants, he pur- 
chases the stock, lays out the patterns if necessary, and cuts or 
turns the metal to form a size, drills necessary holes, rivets, bolts, 
grinds and assembles. The raw material may be sheet iron, strap 
iron, cold rolled steel, and steel bars and tubes. The majority of 
such workers are ^ 'handy metal workers" many of whom are not 
real machinists. 

In the manufacturing of agricultural implements, the machin- 
ist operates lathes, engine lathes, Gisholt machines, boring mills, 
drill presses, punch presses, milling machines and shearing ma- 
chines. He builds separator cylinders, and other implement 
parts, and directly attends to all upkeep work. 

The vise man chips and files parts, and cuts key ways for sealers 
and pulleys, and assembles the more intricate implement parts. 

What the job shop machinist does. — The job shop machinist 
should be, and often is, the highest type of worker in his field. Job 
shops receive orders for repairs and parts on all types of machines 
and mechanical devices. The week's work may involve the use of 
the whole range of machines including lathes, drill presses, shap- 
ers, grinders and planers, and a large variety of hand tools, all of 
which the machinst is supposed to have in his ''kit" ready for 
use. The job shop machinist is often a model maker as well, 
constructing from metal whole machines and machine parts for 
experimental work. He is, oftentimes, also a tool maker and pat- 
tern maker. He must be able to work from a blue print, as well 
as from verbal directions. The nature of job shop works pro- 
hibits specialization. 

What the auto repairm,an and machinist does. — The auto repair- 
man must be a thorough all around mechanic. Upon receiving 
the car brought in for repairs, he must locate the part which 



Chap VIII] Metal Industries 113 

is broken or which needs adjustment. Then he must determine 
how to remove the broken part or make the adjustment with the 
least possible disturbance to the related mechanism. After do- 
ing this he makes the repair or the adjustment, being assisted by 
a helper. Small repairs and replacements requiring the use of 
the planer, milling machine, emery wheel, key seater, drill press, 
lathe, and hack saw are made in the shop. Soldering and brazing 
are also done, as well as necessary blacksmithing. Engines must 
be timed, cylinders scraped or bored, valves seated and ignition, 
starting and lighting systems repaired. Thus, the auto machin- 
ist and repairman must possess the knowledge and skill of the 
machinist, the blacksmith, and the electrician. 

What the upkeep machinist does. — The upkeep machinist must 
be an ingenious worker, as he must repair all machine parts, make 
new parts to replace old ones, adjust machines, and set up the new 
machines which may be purchased. During the course of his 
work he must operate all machines in the plant, and, oftentimes, 
instruct others in their correct operation and control. All manu- 
facturing plants in Richmond employ machinists for upkeep pur- 
poses. Sometimes these machinists are also tool makers- 

Special knowledge required. The basic special knowledge 
required of all machinists, regardless of employment as above 
indicated, is uniform. The}^ must be able to read blue prints 
with accuracy and facilitj^, and must use instruments of pre- 
cision. A knowledge of metallurgy, and tensile strength, elas 
ticity and composition of metals, as well as elementary geometry 
and trigonometry is required. It is also necessary that the 
machinists know the best cutting speeds for all machines and 
metals, as well as how to set up and operate the various machines. 

Special skill required. — The special skill required includes the 
use of instruments of precision, machine operating, using hand 
tools, and dismanteling, assembling and adjusting machines and 
replacing broken parts. Machinists must be able to set up and 
operate milling machines, planes, shapers, drills, lathes, slotters, 
screw machines, tool grinders, and skilfully use all hand tools, 
particularly the hand file. Richmond machinists must be able to 
knock down, assemble and adjust all types of machines. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — In the railroad 
repair shop and machine tool manufacturing industry, beginners 

8 — 5427 



114 Occupational Infoumation [Part II 

are trained through a period of apprenticeship. The period of 
apprenticeship in the raih-oad shop is three years, while in the 
machine tool manufacturing the period is four years. In the lat- 
ter case, upon the completion of the first year of the apprentice- 
ship, the worker receives a good set of tools and a micrometer. 
There are but few machinists' helpers in Richmond, and the 
amount learned or the proficiency which these helpers achieve, 
depends almost entirely upon the helper himself. Many of the 
best machinists now in Richmond have been trained in other 
cities through an apprenticeship and day and evening school in- 
struction. 

A great number of machinists, however, have started a ma- 
chine operators, changing employment when necessary to learn 
the use of another machine. In this way the trade has been par- 
tially learned. The trade now partly develops in workmen the 
technical skills of machine operating but does not and cannot give 
information about metals, science, drawing and mathematics of 
the trade. 

Promotion. — In the railroad shop and manufacturing shops 
the machinist may be promoted to foreman. Helpers and ap- 
prentices may become machinists. Good general machinists with 
a little capital may open job shops, and auto machinists may open 
auto repair shops. 

Wages. — The scale of wages varies from twenty-seven to thirty- 
six and one-half cents per hour for a ten-hour day. 

The Machine Operator 

In Richmond, milling machines, planers, slotters and other 
machines of these types are operated by machinists rather than 
machine operators; therefore, these types of operators are not 
here included. 

What the railroad machine operator does. — In the railroad re- 
pair shop machine operating includes the wheel boring machine, 
the wheel press, the lathe, the power threading machine and the 
drill press. Machine operating is specialized to the extent that 
-one worker turns the axles to size, another drills the wheels, and 
another operates the hj^lraulic press by means of which the wheel 
is forced on the axle. The pressure applied is graphed automat- 
ically on a sheet of paper placed on a revolving cylinder. By 



Chap. YIII] Metal Industries 115 

means of this graph, the worker determines whether or not the 
wheel and axle have been drilled and turned to the proper size. 
A helper rolls the complete unit of axle and wheels on a track into 
the 3"ard, where it is kept in stock for future use. 

What the drill press operator does. — The drill press operator 
drills holes in parts of lawn mowers, agricultural implements, 
automobiles, high speed drills, etc., by means of single spindle, 
radial or gang drills. In a single spindle drill, a single drill is 
mounted in the head in a fixed position; in a gang drill a series of 
spindles are mounted in the heads; and in the radial drills, a single 
spindle may be moved along a guide permitting complete adap- 
tation to the work at hand. The stock to be drilled is placed on 
the table, usually beneath a template jig or guide to insure ac- 
curacy, and by means of hand or foot control the drill or drills are 
fed against the stock, sufficient pressure being applied to complete 
the drilling process. The drill press worker may at times do hand 
chipping with a cold chisel on rough castings. 

What the screw operator does. — The automatic screw machines 
perform the same type of work as the turret lathe. Sometimes 
the operator sets up his own machine and this ''setting up" pro- 
cess requires skill. Six bars of stock are fed into the six units of 
the machine, the six different operations are performed simul- 
taneousl3^ The operator watches the machine, doing nothing at 
all unless an adjustment is needed. By continual and careful ob- 
servation, he learns to set up the machine. 

What the lathe operator does. — The operator puts the parts to 
be machined in a chuck fixed to a madrel, while the tool held in 
the tool post is advanced or receded bj^ means of a feed regulated 
b}^ the operator. The part being machined revolves about the 
cutting tool. 

Special knowledge required of all operators. — The special knowl- 
edge required for operating the above named machines consists 
of knowing how to mount the work in the machine, how to select 
and insert the proper tool and how to regulate the cutting speed 
of the machine. As jigs and templates are furnished to guide 
the tool and indicate where cuts are to be made, little knowledge 
is needed of blue print reading and use of instruments. 

Special skill required of all operators. — Skill consists in quickly 



116 Occupational Information [Part II 

and accurately mounting the work in the machine, mounting the 
tool, regulating machine speeds and removing the finished work. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill nec- 
essary for operating the drill press may be obtained on the job in 
two weeks time, following the instruction of the foreman. To 
learn to operate the other machines requires a longer time, but 
all necessary skill may be obtained on the job. 

Promotion. — Machine operators who take advantage of night 
school instruction for machinists may obtain work requiring the 
operation of a number of machines and thus ultimately become 
machinists. Without learning to operate machines other than 
those which constitute the specialized work of the day, and with- 
out learning the use of hand tools, the chances for promotion are 
very slight. 

Wages. — Weekly wages range from twelve and one-half to 
twenty cents per hour for a ten hour day. 

The Engine House Foreman and Assistant 

What the foreman does. — The engine house foreman looks after 
all engines, indicating the repairs which are necessary. He de- 
cides when an engine shall be ''shopped" for repairs, using all 
possible means of obtaining the maximum mileage from each en- 
gine between shoppage. The foreman supervises the work of all 
repairmen on engine work. 

What the assistant foreman does. — The assistant foreman 
checks up the work of the repair hands, seeing that the work is 
of the standard required for the engine to pass inspection. 

The Boiler Maker and Helper 

What the worker does. — The engine repair boiler maker lays 
out and applies patches to defective boilers. He must remove 
and replace stay bolts, remove and replace flues and calk them, 
remove and replace front end netting and do all these repair jobs 
well enough to withstand all probable strains of road work. 

The boiler makers' helper does the rough work of drilling out 
and cutting the stay bolts with a cold chisel. He also assists in 
removing and replacing and calking flues, and in repairing leaks 



Chap. VIII] Mltal Industries 117 

in ash pans and front ends. In calking flues he fires up the boiler 
to 100 pounds pressure and knocks out the fire and cleans the fire 
l)Ox. Calking is done under the 100 pounds steam pressure. 

Special knowledge required. — The boiler maker must be able to 
detect damaged boilers and know how to make the proper 
repairs. He must know how to use the tools of his trade, how to 
read steam gauges, properly use calking material and know when 
a repair job will pass inspection. The helper must know how to 
fire the engine, read the steam gauge, knock out the fire and calk 
flues. 

Special skill required. — The boiler maker and his assistant must 
know how to use hammers, chisels, punches, drills and other tools 
of the trade; be able to lay out the patch of the proper size and 
shape and apply it. He must skilfully use calking tools. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The majority 
of the boiler makers learned the trade in an agricultural implement 
factory. New workers are trained by means of the helper system. 
By working on the job, under the direction of the foreman, the 
necessary knowledge and skill are now obtained. 

Promotion. — The boiler maker may be promoted to boiler in- 
spector and the helper to boiler maker. 

Wages. — The boiler maker receives from thirty to thirty-six 
cents per hour for a ten-hour day or a twelve-hour night; a helper 
receives from eighteen to twenty-six cents per hour for a twelve- 
hour day or night. 

The Car Repairman and Helper 

What the worker does. — In the car repair shop freight cars re- 
quiring immediate attention are repaired, and in some cases, pas- 
senger cars are repaired. With a foreign car needing repairs, work 
to the extent of $25.00 may be done without the specific authori- 
zation of the company owning the car; if the cost will exceed this 
figure, permission must be granted to either' tear down or repair 
the car. At present the law requires a new safety device con- 
sisting of grab rods and metal ladders to be installed on all cars 
according to certain specifications within a certain specified time. 
For this work $50.00 is allowed. In case a car to be repaired does 
not have a safety device, the repairs may cost $75.00. 



118 Occupational Information [Part II 

The head carpenter lays out the material to be used from blue 
prints, templates and removed parts. His helpers do the cutting, 
planing, boring, and mortising after the work has been laid out. 
The carpenter makes sills, end sills and parts for seats, tender re- 
pairs and truck repairs. The materials handled vary in size from 
the smallest moldings to sills of 6'' x 8" end dimensions. 

The freight car repairmen, who constitute the bulk of the 
force, repair and remodel freight cars, and, in the case of a wreck, 
serve as the wrecking crew. They make all types of repairs from 
replacing a broken bolt to an entire body. Air brake systems, 
heating and ventilating systems, floors, walls, grab rods, all come 
within the range of their work. 

Special knowledge required. — The head carpenter must have a 
thorough knowledge of car construction, repairing materials, 
their selection and strength, and blue print reading. Repairmen 
must also have a thorough knowledge of the mechanical and 
running parts and the body of freight and passenger cars. 

Special skill required. — General all around manipulative skill 
is required, such as possessed by well trained carpenters. Car- 
penters' helpers must be able to operate and care for power wood- 
working machinery. Repairmen, in addition to having the 
carpenters' skill, must also be able to do pipe-fitting and general 
metal work. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill nec- 
essary for the manipulative phases of repair work may be obtained 
on the job by working as a helper under the foreman's direction. 
Blue print reading and information about lay out, materials and 
pipe fitting cannot be obtained on the job, but through private 
correspondence or evening school study. 



The Railroad Shop Laborer 

What the worker does. — The railroad shop laborer does general 
chore work, including cleaning, shoveling cinders, wheeling dirt 
and rubbish. He also assists in loading and unloading, in lifting 
heavy repair parts, and occasionally in helping ear repairmen and 
serving on the wreck crew. 

Special knowledge required. — The laborer must be familiar with 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 119 

the yards and shops so that he can perform his woik with a mini- 
mum of direction and supervision from the foreman and gang 
leader. 

Special skill required. — Skill is limited entirely to the proper 
use of brooms, shovels and other simple tools. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained by working on the job under 
the direction of the foreman. 

Promotion. — The work of the laborer leads to no other work 
of a higher order. 

Wages. — The rate of pay for laborers is seventeen cents per 
hour for either a ten or twelve-hour day. 

The Tool Maker 

What the worker does. — The tool maker, or sometimes termed 
the tool room machinist, makes repairs on the machines of the 
plant, repairs, makes and tempers tools, and makes templates, 
jigs and other devices used in various manufacturing processes. 
All Richmond manufacturing plants of any importance employ at 
least one tool maker. When not engaged in repair work, the tool 
maker may work on new models of machines and mechanical de- 
vices, or supplement the regular machinists. The special tools 
ordinarily kept in the tool room, are usually in his direct custody. 
He issues them to workmen upon check, sees they are returned, 
and if necessary grinds and tempers them so that at all times all 
small tools are ready for service. 

The tool maker works from a drawing or blue print, or dupli- 
cates a part furnished him, or w^orks from verbal directions. He 
operates all tj^pes of metal working machines, handles skilfully 
all metal hand tools, including chisels, files and reamers, and uses 
all types of instruments or precision. He must be able to do 
everything expected of a well trained machinist, in addition to 
meeting all kinds of situations requiring ingenuity and inventive- 
ness. 

Special knowledge required. — The tool maker must possess spe- 
cial knowledge concerning metals, the kinds, qualities and working 
speeds of each; tempering of steel; the mechanics of machine 



120 Occupational Information [Part II 

work; operation and upkeep of all metal working machines and 
tools; use of hand tools; and blue print reading. 

Special skill required. — The tool maker is the highest skilled 
worker in the shop. He must be skilful in using all the machines 
and hand tools enumerated under the description of the machinist 
and machine operator; skilful in tempering; inventive in type of 
mind and unusually resourceful. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — There is a three 
to four-year apprenticeship in tool making still operative in two 
Richmond shops. The majority of tool makers now employed in 
Richmond learned their trade through apprenticeship. During 
the apprenticeship period, however, no provision is made for 
teaching the science, mathematics and drawing of the trade. 
The school must provide courses in metallurgy, shop mathe- 
matics, geometry and trigonometry, and blue print reading. 

Promotion. — As this is the highest position in the shop, ex- 
cept those directive in nature, there are no opportunites for pro- 
motion for the skilled tool maker save in becoming foreman. 
Apprentices and helpers may become tool makers. 

Wages. — Wages range from thirty-two to forty cents per hour 
for a ten-hour day. 

The Blacksmith 

What the worker does. — Blacksmiths are employed in the rail- 
road repair shops, in the manufacturing of agricultural imple- 
ments and in small job shops where horseshoeing, wagon and 
carriage repairing and general blacksmithing are carried on under 
the same roof. 

The work of the railroad shop blacksmith includes the making 
of grab irons, brake rods and other car parts, and repairing broken 
metal parts. Forging, brazing and welding are essential opera- 
tions. The recent installation of the oxy-acetylene welding plant 
requires the blacksmith to become proficient in this type of weld- 
ing. The worker uses all the tools of the trade including hand 
and power blown forges, hand and power hammers, sledges, 
chisels, and tongs. In repair work all kinds and sizes of rolled 
bar, sheet metal and strap iron are used. He is also required to 
dress and temper tools. 

In the manufacturing of agricultural implements the work of 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 121 

the blacksmith includes tool tempering, forging, welding, form- 
ing, thread cutting and shearing. Some assembling operations 
are performed by blacksmiths. During the rush season, work is 
limited to manufacturing parts for new implements, but during 
the summer months repair jobs constitute the bulk of the work. 
Repairing work includes dismantling implements and replacing or 
repairing worn and broken parts. 

The job shop blacksmiths, employed in the fifteen Richmond 
shops, do all sorts of repair work on wagons, carriages and imple- 
ments, build and repair fire escapes and fire doors, and do horse- 
shoeing. 

Special knowledge required. — Regardless of the type of em- 
ployment blacksmiths must understand the care of the forge and 
how to "fire up," how to temper and dress tools, how to weld and 
braze, by both the old and new processes, and how to cut, shear, 
punch, drill and bend hot and cold metal. Tool tempering and 
iron and steel welding require scientific knowledge; the former, 
the recognition of types of steels and tempering methods, and the 
latter the knowledge of proper heats and fluxes. The job shop 
blacksmith must also know the anatomy of the horse's hoof, 
types of shoes, how to fit shoes and how to nail shoes to the hoof. 

Special skill required. — Skills consist in properly firing the 
forge, heating and shaping the metal, welding and tempering, and 
using all the tools of the trade. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — In the railroad 
shop there is a three years' blacksmith apprenticeship. In other 
shops beginners start as helpers and by experience and observa- 
tion develop the manual skills of the trade. Knowledge of metals, 
tempering, welding and welding fluxes can be acquired through 
school courses in metallurgy. 

Promotion. — The blacksmith's helper or apprentice may be- 
come a blacksmith. 

Wages. — Wages vary from twenty-five to thirty-six cents per 
hour for a ten-hour da}^ 



122 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Assembler 

See also Chapter IV on ''Automobile/' Chapter VI on ''Lawn 
Mower" and Chapter VII on "Agricultural Imple- 
ment Manufacturing." 

What the worker does. — The work of the assembler employed 
in the manufacturing of agricultural implements, automobiles and 
lawn mowers is described under the respective chapters dealing 
with these industries. 

In the manufacture of greenhouse apparatus, the assembler 
dips in paint and gathers together parts of ventilators, including 
hangers, chains, hinges, brackets, rivets, bolts and screws as nec- 
essary. In some cases he threads pipe, drills, punches, saws and 
grinds parts. Operations similar in type to those enumerated are 
performed in assembling fire escapes, fire doors and track de- 
railers. 

In erecting high speed radial drills, the floor worker or the 
assembler erects the various machine units. He assembles slid- 
ing shaft, spindle and universal joint as a unit, to which are at- 
tached arm and bearings. A test is then made to see that the 
universal joint operates properly. In head assembling, the drive 
shaft and drive gears are fitted to the spindle and spindle pinions. 
The shifter fork unit is also attached. 

Special knowledge required. — The assembler must be familiar 
with the completed product, and the exact relation of various 
parts and the function of each. He must be able to bolt, screw 
and rivet parts together and make all necessary mechanical 
adjustments. 

Special skill required. — Special skill includes the use of hand 
tools and quick and accurate assembly of parts. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained by working on the job under 
the foreman's direction. 

Promotion. — There is no well defined system of promotion for 
the assembler. As a rule, this work leads to no other more ad- 
vanced job. 

Wages. — The wage rate varies from sixteen to twenty-five 
cents per hour for a ten-hour day. 



Chap. VIII] Metal Indus^tries 123 

The Sheet Metal Worker 

See also Chapter XI on "Building Construction" and Chapter 
VII on ''Agricultural Implement Manufacturing." 

What the worker does. — Aside from the work in the building 
trades and the agricultural implement industry, sheet metal 
workers are employed in the manufacturing of automobile fend- 
ers, tanks, hoods and radiators and in covering fire proof doors 
and safety gates. 

In making safety gates, the worker cuts the corrugated iron 
according to the blue print, and rivets it to heavy frames of angle 
iron. This work is very simple compared with manufacturing 
automobile fenders. In covering fire proof doors, sheet tin is 
tacked to tongued and grooved frames with a wrought iron nail; 
necessary soldering is then done. 

Workmen with a higher type of skill are required in manufac- 
turing radiators, fenders and tanks. As there is a marked ten- 
dency toward specialization in this work, specialized phrases will 
be separately described. 

The layer out makes the pattern from which all parts are cut. 
His work is, therefore, of the utmost importance. He receives 
and works from a model or drawing, and from this he lays out the 
pattern in the flat, indicating the exact number to be cut and the 
gauge of the metal to be used. 

The shearer operator or cutter cuts stock along the lines 
marked by the layer out by using the shearing machine or the 
hand shears. 

The wire operator places the automobile fender, for example, 
between two wheels of a machine which are set one directly above 
the other. As the metal passes between the wheels one end is 
bent under, the other over, each bend enclosing itself around a 
wire running lengthwise of the fold. 

Other sheet metal workers operate crowners, benders, welding 
machines, and do soldering, brazing and riveting. 

Special knowledge required. — Sheet metal workers should pos- 
sess a workable knowledge of drafting and pattern cutting; com- 
position, weight and use of galvanized iron, steel, zinc, copper and 
brass; knowledge of the machines and tools of the trade and of 
soldering, welding and brazing of metals. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — There is no 



124 Occupational Information [Part II 

form of apprenticeship in Richmond in the sheet metal trades. 
Helpers, through the shop routine and instructions from journey- 
men, may learn the use of machines and tools. Drafting and lay- 
ing out, however, require a background of mechanical drawing 
and design which cannot be acquired in the shop. 

Promotion. — Helpers may be promoted to machine men, ma- 
chine men to sheet metal workers, and sheet metal workers to lay- 
ers out and foremen. 

The Pattern Maker 

What the worker does. — The pattern maker is employed in 
special pattern making concerns and agricultural implement fac- 
tories, the latter doing in part a job and contract pattern and 
foundry business. The pattern maker makes patterns in wood, 
aluminum, brass, and white metal of lawn mower and roller skate 
parts, track derailers, gasoline engines, agricultural implements, 
pneumatic tools, air hoists, air blasts, radial drills and piano plates. 

As the Richmond, Virginia, Survey reports in detail on pages 
1914 to 1918, the work of both the wood and metal pattern mak- 
er, which descriptions fit the Richmond, Indiana, situation, the 
reader is referred to this source for the occupational description. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — There is now 
no actual apprenticeship in pattern making in Richmond. The 
majority of men now practicing their trade here, however, are 
products of apprenticeship instruction. There are a few helpers 
who may, in time, become skilled pattern makers. There are no 
provisions, however, in the Richmond shops for teaching the 
essential drafting and mathematics. 

The Moulder and Helper 

What the iron moulder does. — A moulder is usually employed 
exclusively for either iron or brass moulding. The iron moulder, 
in turn, may be either a floor or bench moulder. As the term 
indicates, a floor moulder works on the floor or ground; and a 
bench moulder on the bench. Piano plates and large parts of 
agricultural implements are moulded on the floor, while side 
plates, wheels and cutting bars of lawn mowers and derailer parts 
are moulded on the bench. Each floor moulder is allowed a 



Chap. VIIT] Metal Industkies 125 

helper, while the bench moulder works alone. A ^'ood moulder 
assisted by a helper will mould from eight to ten piano plates 
each day. The plate weighs over 100 pounds. The flask used 
is metal and lifted by compressed air. 

In bench moulding the worker places the wood or metal pat- 
tern in a snap flask, rams sand down upon it, smooths it off, places 
a board over it, and by means of the hand operated squeezer 
equalizes the pressure of the sand upon the pattern. This first 
half of the flask called the cope, is now inverted, the follow board 
removed and a thin layer of parting sand sprinkled over the mould- 
ing sand surrounding the pattern. The gate is then cut and 
the riser pin inserted. The other half of the flask, called the 
drag, is attached and moulding sand evenly packed to the flask 
level. 

To the squeezer is attached a vibrator which so shakes the 
sand that the pattern may be drawn out without the operator 
tapping the pattern with his tool. The vibrator is driven by 
compressed air, and is set by the moulder to give the number of 
vibrations per minute necessary to loosen the pattern. The two 
parts of the flask are separated, the pattern removed, and the 
flask reunited. The flask is placed on the floor with others, in 
long even rows, preparatory to pouring. The large moulds are 
painted with lamp black to keep the sand from parting, and over 
each mould is placed an iron plate to prevent the mould from 
crumbling when the molten metal is poured in. 

At three o'clock in the afternoon the pouring takes place. 
Molten iron is drawn from the cupola in ladles, each moulder 
pouring his own small castings, being assisted by a man from the 
tumbling room in pouring large castings. As a rule, each moulder 
moulds the same part day after day, thus developing a high degree 
of proficiency. Each bench moulder tempers his own sand, but 
one worker tempers and sifts all sand for the floor moulders. 

The helper carriers floor boards and flasks, cleans up after each 
pouring and is generally helpful to the moulder. 

What the brass moulder does. — The brass moulder in Richmond 
works in the trough or on the bench. The essential operations 
are identical with those followed by the iron moulder. Finer and 
cleaner sands must be used, different mixtures followed for facing, 
and a greater allowance made for shrinkage. The brass products 
are parts of pneumatic tools, air blasts and plumbing and house 
fixtures. 



126 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required. — Moulders must possess a knowl- 
edge of moulding sand; green, dry, loam and facing sands; a 
slight knowledge of metallurgy and chemistry, including mixtures 
of metals and action of gases ; and a knowledge of all the hand and 
machine methods of moulding. Machine methods have not, as 
yet, been introduced into Richmond foundries. 

Special skill required. — The moulder must operate squeezers, 
rappers and sand mixers; be skilful in tempering and cutting sand, 
in inserting cores, in removing patterns and pouring metal. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The appren- 
ticeship system, by which most of the Richmond moulders were 
trained, has now disappeared. Helpers may become moulders. 
The trade is so highly specialized that there are few highly skilled 
men now in the work. For foremen, a knowledge of metallurgy 
and the chemistry of gases is essential and cannot be obtained 
during the routine of the foundry work. 

Promotion. — Helpers may be promoted to moulders and mould- 
ers to foremen. 

Wages. — Practically all moulding in Richmond is on a piece 
basis. Workers pay for scrapped moulds. It is said that some 
moulders receive from sixteen to twenty dollars weekly. Helpers 
work in some foundries on a day basis and in others on a piece 
basis. Moulders sometimes hire and pay their own helpers. It 
is said that helpers receive from one dollar and seventy-five cents 
to two dollars per day. 

The Core Maker 

MHiat the worker does. — The core maker takes sand, previously 
mixed with oils and molasses, and packs it in a core box which 
makes the whole core, if it be a cone, c^dinder or cube, or one-half 
of the core if the shape is irregular. With irregular cores the two 
halves are wired or glued together. The cores are baked in an 
oven till sufficiently hard for use by the moulder. The work is 
usually done on a piece basis. 

Special knowledge required. — The core maker must know how 
to prepare and mix sands, how to pack the core box, how to re- 
move the core and the proper oven temperature and proper bak- 
ing periods. 



Chap. VIII] Metal Industries 127 

Special skill required. — Deft fingers are required. The cores 
are fragile and must be carefully handled. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The core maker 
starts as a helper and by working under the direction of the fore- 
man attains the essential aspects of knowledge and skill required 
by the job. A period of months is usually required to develop 
proficiency. 

Promotion. — Helpers maj^ be promoted to core makers and 
core makers to foremen. 

The Cupola Tender 

What the ivorker does. — The cupola tender receives from the 
office the formula for the charge indicating the amount of iron, 
limestone and fuel which goes into the charge. He attends to 
the loading and firing of each charge, being assisted by cupola 
laborers who wheel the materials on the loading platform, dump- 
ing them into the cupola. He also directs the drawing of the 
charge and the subsequent preparing of the cupola for the next 
charge Preparing the cupola involves removing the slag and clay 
remaining against the walls, and the refining with clay of parts 
where the lining is thin or worn away. 

Special knowledge required. — The cupola tender should have an 
elementary knowledge of metallurgy and chemistry, including 
fluxing substances, combustion and chemical composition of iron 
and steel. 

Special skill required. — The cupola tender must be able to 
direct the refining of the cupola and the work of loading, firing 
and drawing the charge. He must be able to perform all tliese 
operations himself. 

Flow special knoivledge and skill are obtained. — As the cupola 
tender comes up from the ranks he ol)tains the necessary knowl- 
edge and skill by observation and participation. The theoretical 
knowledge necessary for success cannot be obtained on the jol). 

Promotion. — The cupola tender may find employment as a 
cupola tender boss. These positions are not numerous in Rich- 
mond. 



128 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Cleaner, Grinder and Foundry Laborer 

What the workers do. — The cleaner knocks the core from the 
casting and cleans away the sand with a wire brush. He places 
small castings in a revolving tumbler which removes the sand. 
The grinder files, chips and grinds castings as they come from the 
foundry to remove ''fins" and all excess metal. The foundry 
Iab»orer assists in preparing the cupola for a charge, in charging it, 
and drawing the charge. The moulder laborer breaks moulds 
and digs out castings, works over old sand and mixes it with new, 
this last process being called ''sand cutting." 

Special knowledge required. — The laborer needs no special 
knowledge, other than that which may be obtained in a very short 
period of employment; the grinder must be able to properly use 
files, grinding wheels, chisels and compressed air hammers. 

Special skill required. — The laborer and cleaner need only the 
manual skill possessed by physically strong normal men. The 
grinder must be able to use the tools above enumerated. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — All necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained through the routine of the 
work in a short period of time. 

Promotion. — The laborer may become a moulder's helper, or a 
cupola tender, but the cleaner and grinder are not likely to be pro- 
moted to other work. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

All of the metal trades of Richmond are of vital and increas- 
ing importance. The difficulty in attempting to organize trade 
preparatory courses is that the various metal trades are becoming 
split up into many sub-trades and occupations, each requiring 
specialized knowledge and skill which may be acquired in a rela- 
tively short time. Specialized metal machine operating and spe- 
cialized sheet metal working are examples. The metal trades 
which are now important and which will remain important 
are machinisting, tool making, pattern making and moulding and 
foundry foremanship. There is a distinct need for all these trades 
in Richmond and a particular need for machinists. The Survey 
Committee recommends that trade preparatory courses, on a 
strict vocational basis, be organized for these trades, the content 
and length of each course to be determined by advisory committees 
from the respective trades. 



Chap. VIIIj Metal Industries 129 

For machine operators, the evening- school shoukl provide op- 
portunities where men confined to one machine during the day 
may learn to operate a variety of machines. Blue print reading 
should also be included. By taking advantage of such courses, 
ambitious machine operators might become machinists. 

Evening school courses for tool makers should be provided and 
should include metallurgy, the fundamentals of hardening and 
tempering and blue print reading. Such courses should be on a 
short unit basis. For machinists the evening school should offer 
machine shop practice, drafting and blue print reading and 
mathematics. 

Blacksmiths and forge workers would profit by evening 
courses having in type the same content as suggested for tool 
makers. 

Evening courses for sheet metal workers are vitally needed. 
Such courses should be on a short unit trade extension basis and 
include trade mathematics, drafting and lay out work. 

Moulders and foundry workers would profit by trade extension 
evening courses in sand mixtures and metallurgy. 



9—5463 



CHAPTER IX 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: THE MUSICAL 

INSTRUMENT, CASKET AND FURNITURE 

MANUFACTURING 

As there are a considerable number of identical occupations 
practiced in the musical instrument, casket and furniture indus- 
tries, these three industries are grouped in a single chapter. 

The Musical Instrument Industry 

Ifnportance and scope. — Like many of the representative man- 
ufacturing enterprises of Richmond, the piano industry has been 
long established, expanding year by year, until it now gives 
employment to about 850 workers. Three lines of musical instru- 
ments are manufactured: Pianos, player pianos and phono- 
graphs. 

Early use of piano. — While the piano as now known, dates back 
for over a century, and before that to its forerunners, spinets and 
harpsichords, there have been more improvements in this instru- 
ment since 1900 than in any other period. Many of these de- 
velopments have proceeded along the line of mechanical playing 
devices, which were at first attachments to an ordinary piano by 
means of which the keys were operated mechanically. Such 
mechanical devices have been succeeded by player pianos, in which 
the mechanism of the player is installed within the upright piano 
and acts directly on the piano action. 

Kinds of pianos. — In general, two types of pianos are made — 
grands and uprights. The grands are triangular in form, and in 
size range from the concert grand, approximately nine feet in 
length, to the baby grand of six feet. The square piano lias been 
succeeded by the upright, which is the instrument in general use 
to-day. 

The parts of the piano. — Every piano consists of a number of 
standardized parts. Beginning with the case, which though for- 

(131) 



132 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



merly of solid cherry, rosewood, mahogany or other hard wood, is 
made of veneered stock, the principal parts are the frame, string- 
plate, wrist plank, belly or sounding board, strings, actions and 
pedals. 




A Jacobian Grand Piano. 



Manufacturing processes. — The frame is made of metal and 
held within the piano case. The string plate, as the name implies, 
is the cast metal plate mounted on the rear of the frame, to which 
all the strings are attached. To the front of the frame is attached 
the wrist plank, which holds the tuning pins, around which one 
end of the strings is wound. By turning the tuning pins, the ten- 
sion of the strings are regulated. Under the string is placed the 
belly or sounding board. This is a thin piece of wood, usually 
maple, which intensifies the sound of the strings. The strings, 
fastened at one end to the string plate and at the other to pins on 
the wrist plank, are made of steel wire, increasing in length and 
thickness from treble to bass. The bass strings are usually copper 
wound. 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Tuadeh 



133 



The action is the mechanical device by means of which the 
hammers are forced against the strings. The action includes the 
hammers, dampers, keyboard and keys. The keys are made of 
ivory in all but the cheapest grades of pianos. The sharps are 
made of ebony, and correspond to chromatically altered notes, 
shorter in length than the naturals, projecting above them. When 
a key is pressed down, its rear end rises and lifts a jack. The jack 
throw^s the hammer against the strings. Simultaneously with the 
throw of the hammer, the damper is raised, thus allowing the 
strings to vibrate freely. The damper remains raised as long as 
the key is pressed down. 

The hammers are made of hickory, white beech or other ten- 
acious wood, which has enough elasticity to permit them to re- 
bound. The heads of the hammers are covered with felt which is 
increased in thickness from treble to bass. 




An Upright Piano of Substantial Design. The Product of Scores of Workers 
from a Great Variety of Trades. 



Pianos usuall}^ have three pedals; the piano or soft, the forte 
or hard, and the tone sustaining pedal. When the soft pedal is 
pressed, all the hammers are thrown nearer the strings, thereby 



134 Occupational Information [Part II 

reducing the striking distance by one-half. The hard pedal, when 
pressed, raises all the dampers, so that the strings struck vibrate 
even after the kej^s are released. The tone sustaining pedal, by 
means of its action, tends to prolong the sound. 

Player pianos and their operation. — The player pianos resemble 
ordinary upright pianos, with the addition of a player action. A 
perforated roll of music, on which is marked the musical expres- 
sions by words or signs, is played b}^ means of automatic leverage 
which takes the place of the pianist's fingers. The power is fur- 
nished by an air motor operated by bellows blown by foot power. 
^Mechanical arrangements permit of loud or soft playing, as in the 
regular piano. 

Phonographs. — The most recent invention in the musical 
world is the phonograph. By means of a sensitive composition 
disc, the sound of the human voice or the strains of orchestral 
music may be reproduced on a record which is mechanically oper- 
ated. This branch of the industry has developed rapidly. The 
phonograph, from a simple and ineffective reproducer of sounds, 
has been perfected until reproduction is practically perfect. With 
this development has gone a similar development in cabinet work 
and case making, necessary to create an instrument of beauty. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — The few weeks prior to the 
Christmas season constitute the busy season in the musical instru- 
ment industry. The industry is not, as a rule, however, seasonal 
in nature. Overtime work, when necessary, is likely to effect all 
departments and workers. 

SouT^e and selection of workers. — The factory superintendent 
is primarily responsible for the emplojaiient of all workers; in 
organized departments, in charge of a foreman, however, the hiring 
of new workers is done by the foreman. Many departments are 
operated on the contract system and the contractor hires and dis- 
charges workers at will. Practically all male beginners are first 
cmplo3'ed as offbearers in the mill rooms, and man}- are subsequent- 
ly transferred to other departments, when vacancies occur or a 
larger force is needed. 

The Casket Industry 

Importance and scope. — Casket making is the most important 
cabinet making industry in Richmond, and one of the most im- 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



135 




The Phonograph — The Latest and Most Perfect Sound Reproducing Instru- 
ment. Its Perfection Has Involved the Use of New 
Materials and the Development of New 
Processes and Trades, 



136 Occupational Information [Part II 

portant industries in the city. There are employed in the three 
estabUshments, approximately 225 workers. The output of one 
factory alone is said to be 1,000 caskets a month. Some idea of 
the wide range and variation of this product may be gained from 
the statement that one of the establishments makes over 900 dif- 
ferent styles and shapes of caskets. 

Manufacturing processes. — In the making of caskets, various 
kinds of cabinet woods, including oak, mahogany and black wal- 
nut are used for the polished caskets, and chestnut for cloth cov- 
ered caskets. The lumber is planed and cut to size, distributed 
to different departments, and cut into tops, bottoms, sides and 
ends, which are subsequently assembled. After assembling, the 
casket is either covered on the outside with cloth and lined with 
quilting, or stained, or filled and polished, according to the wood 
used and the grade of job required, after the interior trimming is 
applied. The casket is crated and stored, awaiting shipment. 

The Furniture Industry 

Importance and scope. — The products of the Richmond furni- 
ture factories are household furniture and kitchen cabinets, the 
latter being the most important branch. The combined indus-. 
tries employ about 150 workers. 

Manvfacturing processes. — Wood is purchased in the rough, 
dried in a kiln and then cut to size, after which the necessary 
milling operations are performed. Assembling, glueing and fin- 
ishing complete the manufacturing processes. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Occupations Common to the Three Industries 

Males Females 

Foremen, wood machine operators 6 . . ; 

Wood machine operators and helpers 161 

Gluers 11 

Benchmen and assemblers 55 

Foremen, finishers 5 

Finishers 152 

Packers and box makers (not anah' zed) 24 

Yard force and laborers (not analyzed) 84 

Total 498 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 137 

Occupations Peculiar to Piano and Phonograph Making 

Males Females 

Foremen, cabinet makers 3 

Cabinet makers 110 

Foremen, veneer workers 2 

Veneer workers 17 

Key makers 22 

Action workers 26 

Fly finishers 23 

Tool and hardware makers (see Chapter VIII) 41 

Plate drillers 12 

Stringers (not analyzed) , 6 

Key clampers (not analyzed) 6 

Tuners (not analyzed) 11 

Record makers (not analyzed) 7 

Repair workers (not analyzed) 9 



Total 295 



Occupations Peculiar to Player Piano Making 

Males Females 

Superintendents (not analyzed) 1 

Miscellaneous occupations 

Bellows makers 10 

Action assemblers 11 

Motor assemblers 4 

Action regulators 2 

Bushers, valve setters, etc 20 

Stencil cutters . 9 

Music roll cutter 1 



Total 28 30 

Occupations Peculiar to the Casket Industry 

Males Females 

Coverers and trimmers (see Chapter IV) 52 6 

Cutters, sewers and tufters (see Chapter XII) 28 



Total 52 34 



138 Occupational Infohmation [Pakt II 

The Foreman, Machine Operators 

What the worker does. — The mill foreman routes all work as 
directed by the office, and is held responsible for the output of his 
department. He employs and discharges all machine operators. 

In piano manufacturing, he directs the cutting up of the 
rough stock into tops, rims, frames, lower frames, upper frames, 
columns, arms, feet, plinths, tablets, key slips, key blocks, key 
beds, bows, key moulding, top moulding, end moulding, cross 
beads, finger stop, upper frame moulding, lower frame moulding, 
lower blocks, fillets, corner fillets and corner bases. The foreman 
receives instructions from the office concerning the number and 
type of instrument to be manufactured and the size and shape of 
all the wood parts, with the exception of the posts. He transmits 
these instructions in written form to each workman. 

Special knowledge required. — The foreman must be familiar 
with various kinds of woods, their grains and the use of each for 
each part of the instrument. He must have a thorough working 
knowledge of the machines in his department, and the work that 
each will do. The mill room foreman must be familiar with the 
factory system, in so far as it concerns the mill department. He 
must understand the office order system in receiving orders for 
parts and reporting work done, and the relation of his department 
to others with reference to timing and routing work. 

Special skill required. — The foreman must manage a group of 
men and keep the output up to the office demands. It is also 
necessary that he be able to set up and operate, if necessary, any 
machine in the mill room. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The foreman 
usually obtains the necessary training for his work by working as 
machine operator or mill man in factories where the workers are 
shifted from machine to machine, during the course of the week's 
work. 

Promotion. — The mill room foreman is eligible for considera- 
tion when there is a vacancy in the position of superintendent. 

The Wood Machine Operators 

What the cut-off saw operator does. — The operator cuts the 
wood stock in the specified lengths, the saw being swung over a 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



139 



wood table, which is graded in feet and inches, thus obviating the 
use of a rule. In the smaller establishments, the operator files and 
sets his own saw. 




Double Automatic Cut-off Saws. 



What the rip saw operator does. — Rip saw operators receive 
stock cut to length, rip off one rough edge and then rip the stock 
into proper lengths. They place the stock on an endless belt 
platform, which carries it into the machine. Operators may or 
may not set up and adjust their own machines, depending upon 
the size of the department in which the}' work. 

What the hand saw operator does. — The operator first marks the 
lines along which cuts are to be made, using a template. Four or 
five pieces of stock are placed in special forms and sawed to shape. 
The saw is a thin, continuous steel band, mounted over two 
wheels. Between the wheels is a saw table with an opening 
through which the saw runs. This saw is used in sawing curves 
and irregular shapes. 

What the scroll saw operator does. — The scroll saw operates 
with a reciprocating motion by means of a crank and connecting 
rod. The operator guides the stock through, cutting to the line 



140 Occupational Information [Part II 

indicated. He starts a cut at any point he may desire, by boring 
a hole through the stock, unfastening the saw and refastening it 
through the hole. 

What the planing operator does. — The planer feeds the material 
into the machine, between rollers, forcing it over rapidly revolving 
cutters, which chips one surface perfectly level and eliminates 
warp and irregular surfaces. The operator in rough planing may 
be obliged to send the stock through a number of times in order 
to eliminate twists or other irregularities in its surface. Follow- 
ing this the board may go to an operator who surfaces the other 
side to the proper dimension. This is known as finished planing. 

What the jointing operator does. — The jointer places the board 
on the machine table and by means of hand pressure, passes it 
across the revolving planer knives. The operator usually sets up 
and adjusts his own machine. The knives are sharpened in an- 
other department. The jointer is used to straighten, smooth and 
bevel boards. 

What the moulding operator does. — The operator of a moulding 
machine, as the name implies, prepares moulding and squared 
stock. He may, and usually does, set up his machine to plane 
four surfaces simultaneously, or by the use of special knives, shapes 
each surface differently. 

]Vhat the tenoning operator does. — The operator places the stock 
on a carrier which bears it to the machine which is equipped with 
four heads, two of which are ''rough cut" and the others "finish 
cut." The resulting tenon fits into a mortice. 

What the mortising operator does. — The mortising machine cuts 
mortises into which tenons fit. Single and double machines are 
in use. The operator sets up the machine, inserting the cutting 
tool of the proper size, and gauging the location and depth of the 
cut. The tool consists of a drill, revolving in a hollow square 
cutting chisel. The operator places the stock against the gauge 
on the machine table, raises the table with a foot lever, and re- 
leases the lever when the cut is made. 

What the shaper operator does. — The shaper is equipped with 
a spurred metallic belt which clasps the wood and carries it over 
the shaping tool. The shaper resembles a moulding machine, ex- 
cept that it faces but one face at once. It is used largely for finish- 
ing the edges on irregular shaped stock 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 141 

What the horincj machine operator does. — The operator lays the 
stock against the gauge on the milling table and forces it against 
a revolving auger set in a spindle. He operates his machine by 
a hand lever 

]Vhat the spindle operator does. — In spindle carving, the oper- 
ator cuts stock to the desired shape, by holding it against a re- 
volving cutter at the end of a spindle. The stock has been rough 
shaped previously, by a band saw. All manner of decorative de- 
signs may be cut on this machine. After being carved, the stock 
usually passes to a sanding machine. 

What the sanding operator does. — The sanding operator presses 
wood stock, cut to size and shape, against revolving sandpaper 
surfaces, thus eliminating all planing furrows and smoothing the 
stock surface. 

What the glue joining operator does. — The operator places the 
stock edge down upon a long table and feeds it by hand until it 
touches a corrugated endless belt. The belt carries the stock 
over revolving knives, which perfectly ''true up" the edge. The 
helper feeds the stock into the second unit of the machine, which 
performs a similar operation on the reverse edge and returns it to 
the operator. This machine will only "take" narrow stock, and 
is used primarily for glueing up piano ends. The operator sets 
up, operates and adjusts the machine, but the knives are sharp- 
ened in the machine shop. 

What the helpers do. — Each machine operator is assisted by 
an offbearer, or helper, whose work is receiving the stock after it 
has passed through the machine, and placing it in a neat pile on 
the floor or on a truck. Offbearers are usually young men. 

Special knowledge required of all operators. — All operators must 
recognize the various kinds of woods, their grains and how^ to feed 
the stock into the machine. Practically all operators must know 
how to set up their machines, including inserting and removing 
cutting tools, adjusting gauges and the angle of the cutting table; 
how to operate the machine and how to file and sharpen the ma- 
chine cutting tools. 

Special skill required. — Operators must feed the stock into the 
machine so that it will not clog or "back fire"; they must quickly 
and accurately set up the machine, including table and gauge 



142 Occupational Information [Part II 

adjustments and mounting cutting tools; and they must properly 
control the machine. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Machine oper- 
ators are recruited from among the offbearers and helpers, who 
become familiar with machine adjustments, wood stock and factory 
routine during their penod of employment as offbearers. 

Mental and physical requirements of workers. — Machine opera- 
tors must be physically strong, as they mast lift heavy planks from 
the truck or floor to the machine table. Good eyesight is a prime 
requisite. 

General education required. — At least a complete elementary 
school education is essential, as operators mast use the rule in 
measuring stock; figure in decimals, fractions and whole numbers; 
read intelligently written orders and report in writing the work 
done. 

Hazards and inherent character of the work. — Unguarded saws 
and cutting tools, revolving at a high rate of speed, entail a con- 
tinual risk to the worker. Although blowers remove most of the 
mill dust, the air is constantly laden with free sawdust and small 
particles of wood stock. 

The Gluers 

What the glue cook does. — The glue cook places flaked or ground 
glue stock in a steam kettle of cold water. After the glue is of 
the consistency of gelatine, the steam is applied, and the glue al- 
lowed to simmer until it is thoroughly cooked and ready for use. 
The glue cook delivers the prepared glue to the smaller vats and 
containers for the various gluers. 

What the edge gluer does. — The edge gluer glues together prop- 
erly cut and planed stock, edge to edge. The stock is taken from 
the truck and placed, piece by piece, on a metal heating platform, 
by means of which the stock is sufficiently heated so that the glue 
will not set too rapidly. The edges of the stock are dipped in the 
glae trough, and the pieces thus dipped are assembled on the glue- 
ing frame and clamped with ordinary metal door clamps, which 
are part of the gang glueing machine. These clamps are attached 
to a series of endless chains, and after one unit of stock is as- 
sembled and clamped, another set of clamps are brought to a 
working position, and so on, until about thirty are glaed, by 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



143 



which time the first unit may be removed. The gUieing processes 
may thus proceed continuously. Each edge gluer is assisted by 
a helper who scrapes the dry glue from the glued boards with a 
steel scraper mounted on a wooden handle. 




Edge Glueing Machine. 

What the furniture gluer does. — The furniture gluer works on 
a bench equipped with forms necessary to receive the parts to be 
glued. After the glue is applied, the parts are clamped. and care- 
fully stacked away to ''set." This gluer prepares his own glue and 
keeps it in working condition. 

Special knowledge required. — All gluers should know the proper 
working temper of glue, proper heat for wood stock and how to 
use all kinds of glueing clamps. 

Special skill required. — Skills consist of keeping glue at proper 
temperature, of applying glue to the stock surface and of lining 
up stock or parts with a hammer or mallet, applying clamps, and 
scraping off hardened glue. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
special knowledge and skill may be obtained during the process 
of the work, by following the foreman's instructions. 



144 Occupational Information [Part II 

Promotion. — The range of possible promotion is very slight- 
Glue cooks may be promoted to edge gluers. 

The Benchman and Assembler 

What the worker does. — When products are highly standard- 
ized, such as kitchen cabinets and caskets, the assembler is as- 
sisted by forms and specially adapted clamps, into which he fits 
parts while nailing, glueing or clamping. The kitchen cabinet 
assembler receives the parts made up ready to be attached. To 
the back, he screws and glues the two ends, places partitions and 
shelves, attaches doors and special holding devices for receptacles. 

In casket assembling, the assembler receives the parts cut to 
size. The parts of the cloth covered caskets are nailed and screwed 
together, while the more expensive types finished in the natural 
wood are glued together. 

The benchman applies hinges, catches, locks and trimming to 
all cabinet work. 

Special knowledge required. — Assemblers must be familiar with 
methods of construction and construction details and the tools of 
the trade. 

Special skill required. — The benchman and assembler must 
skilfully use the tools of the trade including clamps, hammers, 
screw drivers, chisels, planes, rules and squares. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Youths employed 
as helpers become familiar with factory procedure, construction 
parts and the tools of the trade. The necessary knowledge and 
skill may be obtained during the course of the routine work. 

Promotion. — The benchman and assembler may become fore- 
man of their respective departments. 

The Foreman, Finishing Department 

What the worker does. — The foreman has full charge of the 
work of the finishing department. He issues orders to all workers 
and, in the smaller establishments, assists in staining, varnishing 
and polishing. In the larger establishments, he does nothing but 
supervise the work of the department. He orders the stock of 
paints, oils, varnishes, shellacs, turpentines, and keeps a record 
of their consumption. 



Chap. IX] ' Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 145 

Special knoiuledge required. — The foreman must be familiar 
with the action of paints, varnishes, shellacs, fillers on various sur- 
faces; how long it takes them to dry; their proper working con- 
sistency; how to thin varnish and mix paints; and how to detect 
a varnish which has been adulterated to make it dry quickly. He 
must know what precautions to take himself, and to advise his 
men to take to reduce the minimum of possibilities of painters' 
occupational diseases. 

Special skill required. — This position requires the ability to 
direct men in a number of priming, painting, oiling, filling and 
varnishing operations, to supervise their work, and actually do 
any of the finishing operations required of any of the workers. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The foreman 
has usually learned his trade thoroughly before being appointed 
to this position. 

Pro7notion. — Being the highest position in the department, 
there are no opportunites for promotion. 

What the stainer does. — The stainer applies liquid stain with a 
brush to the surface, thus coloring the wood as desired and '^rais- 
ing" the grain. The stain is rubbed off with cotton waste. 

What the shellacer does. — Shellac is used for a filler, since it 
makes a good foundation and does not darken the wood. The 
shellac must be applied with quick, even stroke, as it dries very 
rapidly. 

What the coarse rubber does. — After each coat of color is applied, 
the surface is rubbed down with pumice stone to make it perfectly 
smooth. Rubbing is performed either by hand or by machine, 
the latter being used for the large flat surface. Edges and cor- 
ners are rubbed by hand and all final rubbing operations are done 
by hand. 

What the washer does. — The washer washes off the water and 
pumice left on the surface from the rubbing operation. The work 
requires nothing more than good eyesight and strength. 

What the filler does. — Filling is ordinarily done by a painter, 
who fills in all cracks and holes in the wood with putty so that, 
after paint and varnish have been applied, the painted surface 
Vv^ill not reveal any blemishes. The wood surfaces which are to 
be stained and polished are filled with either a liquid or paste filler. 

10—5463 



14G Occupational Information ' [Part II 

What the painter does. — The rough coats for pianos are appKed 
by the painter, who uses a broad, thick bristled brush. The paint 
must be evenly applied over the entire surface of the case. This 
operation differs in no essential particulars from ordinary brush 
work operations. The final painting coat requires great care. 

What the varnisher does. — Varnish coats are applied by the 
varnishers in the same manner that the painter applies color 
coats. As the varnish dries very quicklj^, the coat must be ap- 
plied with an even stroke, without overlapping. The final '^float- 
ing" coat requires a high degree of skill. 

What the finish rubber does. — To obtain a high polish, the finish 
rubber draws the palms of his hands lightly across the varnished 
surface. He also uses rotten stone and water. The stone, en- 
closed in a bag, is rubbed over the wood in the same manner as 
the palms of the hand are drawn over it. 

What the toucher up does. — In the finishing of pianos, the edges 
of some parts may become roughened or dulled. It is the duty 
of the toucher up to "touch up" with a small brush, in a very 
careful manner, the parts which have been marred. 

Special knowledge required of all finishers. — Painters must be 
familiar with kinds of paints, oils and varnishes; thinning and mix- 
ing processes; and the length of time required for them to dry. 
A sense of color and harmony and a knowledge of woods and their 
grains is also required. For priming and filling, only an elemen- 
tary knowledge of painting operations is needed. For rubbing, a 
knowledge of how best to bring out the beauty of the wood is 
needed. In rough rubbing, a knowledge of the grain of woods is 
needed, together with the kind of stone to use. 

Special skill required of all finishers. — Painters and varnishers 
must apply coats evenly and without brush strokes showing. 
This is particularly essential in finishing operations. The rubber 
must rub the surface evenly, and the finishing rubber must be able 
to draw his hand over the varnished surface so as to develop a 
high gloss. Stainers need but the rudimentary technical skills in- 
cident to dipping the brush into the stain and applying it on the 
surface. 

Hoiv special knowledge and skill are obtained. — During the 
course of the work, finishers develop the "tricks of the trade," but 
cannot acquire the chemistry of paint and varnish mixing. 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 147 

Promotion. — In some establishments, a rubber may become a 
painter, and subsequently, perhaps, a varnisher. 

Hazards and inherent character of the work. — The finishing 
occupations are recognized as hazardous, subjecting workers to 
various forms of poisoning. These hazards may be reduced to a 
minimum by taking the proper hygienic precautions 

The Cabinet Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman directs the work of the 
machine men, cabinet workers and cabinet makers' helpers. He 
distributes the work by a series of key numbers. Each part of 
the cabinet of a talking machine or piano case, bears a number 
applied with a metal stencil, so that the worker knows when he has 
completed the parts of one case or cabinet. The numbers used 
range from one to a thousand, after which a new series is begun. 

Special knowledge required. — A complete knowledge of cabinet 
making and a specialized knowledge of the trade as applied to the 
making of talking machine cabinets and piano cases is essential. 
A knowledge of cabinet woods and their uses, and cabinet design- 
ing is also required. 

Special skill required. — The foreman must be able to operate 
any machine in the room, perform any hand process and explain 
all phases of the work to new men. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The trade knowl- 
edge is acquired during the cabinet makers' apprenticeship and 
through years of experience in the trade. Knowledge of design 
and estimating are obtained through technical school courses. 

The Cabinet Makers 

What the cabinet maker does. — In making phonograph cases, 
the cabinet maker sandpapers the various parts which are re- 
ceived cat to size, and glues them together. He installs the cab- 
inet lining and attaches moulding, both inside and outside. His 
work requires the use of the hand tools of the trade. 

What the matcher does. — The matcher examines the wood case 
parts of pianos and phonographs, and sees that all match properly 
and belong to the particular assembly unit. The key number 
marked on each part assists him in matching. 



148 Occupational Information [Part II 

What the wood horn maker does. — The wood horn maker for 
phonographs receives all parts cut to size, glues them together, 
places a template over the horn and drives long, thin wire nails 
through the joints in places indicated by the template. 

What the piano bench maker does. — The bench maker glues and 
screws the bench parts together, receiving them cut to size and 
shape. He trims parts with hand tools, sandpapers parts and 
scrapes off surface glue. 

Special knowledge required. — All cabinet makers must have a 
complete knowledge of their trade; blue pdnt reading; cabinet 
woods; tools of the trade and methods of glueing, screwing, as- 
sembling, sandpapering and scraping. 

Special skill required. — The skills include the correct use of all 
tools, and speed and accuracy in assembling, fitting and glueing. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The older work- 
men are products of apprenticeship instruction. Youthful work- 
ers now learn some of the rudimentary processes by participation 
and observation, but the technique of blue print reading is rarely 
acquired during the course of the work. 

Promotion. — ;Helpers may become cabinet makers, and cabinet 
makers may be promoted to foremen of the cabinet department. 

The Veneer Foreman 

What the worker does. — The veneer foreman supervises all the 
veneer and glueing operations, including hand and gang clamp- 
ing, hydraulic pressing, glue spreading and veneer matching, cut- 
ting, taping and laying. 

Special knowledge required. — The foreman must have a work- 
ing knowledge of veneer stock and base materials; the operation 
of presses and clamps and the suitable pressure for each, and the 
proper temperature for the drying room. The veneer purchasing 
foreman must know markets and buying methods, and be a judge 
of qualities of veneers. 

Special skill required. — The foreman must be able to perform 
all the various veneer occupations subsequently enumerated and 
described. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — By serving as a 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 149 

worker in the various veneer occupations, the necessary aspects 
of knowledge and skill are acquired, except buying and methods. 

The Veneer Workers 

What the veneer marker does. — The veneer marker is furnished 
with an order indicating the size, shape and number of each piece 
of veneer required. He obtains the stock from the drying room, 
cuts the binding cords, and matches the grain of the two veneer 
pieces which he pairs. On the stock, he chalk marks the proper 
trade number. 

What the veneer cutter does. — The cutter receives the marked 
and matched stock from the marker. By referring to the key 
table furnished by the office, he obtains the cutting dimensions of 
each piece. He places the stock on the cutting table which is 
graduated in feet and inches, and by means of a long, tapering 
knife, controlled by foot power, cuts the veneer into required sizes. 

What the veneer taper does. — The two matched veneer pieces 
cut to size are taped together before being glued to the stock. The 
taper operator feeds the two pieces into the machine, which draws 
them tightly together by means of cone shaped rolls, as a narrow 
ribbon of gummed tape is automatically applied, thus holding them 
together. 

What the veneer layer does. — The veneer layer performs the 
various operations incident to applying the cross beading to 
board sides of the core, and the veneer stock to the board sides 
of the cross beading. These operations involve, roughly speak- 
ing, passing the cross beading, which may vary in width from one- 
eighth to one-fourth inch, through the glue spreader; placing the 
cross beading upon the core stock; then applying the actual veneer 
which is about one-thirty-second of an inch in thickness to the 
cross beading. The grain of the cross beading runs in the opposite 
direction from the grain of the core stock, and the grain of the 
veneer stock, in the opposite direction to that of the cross bead- 
ing. By this process, a relatively thin board, between one-half 
and three-eighths of an inch in thickness, may be made so strong 
that it will not warp. These boards are used for the top and 
other parts of the phonograph where strength, durability and 
resonance are required. The process which is above described, 
results merely in bringing together the various pieces of stock in 



150 Occupational Information [Part II 

the veneer process. There still remains the whole process of 
placing and clamping which is essential in actually joining the 
surfaces together. 

Between each part of veneered stock, a call board is placed, 
and when a pile of sufficient size is made, it is trucked over to a 
hydraulic press where a pressure, varying from fifteen hundred to 
three thousand pounds, is applied, according to the need of core 
stock and the veneer. By means of clamping locks, this pres- 
sure is maintained and the whole truck may be removed from the 
press and the stock set to dry. Call boards may be made of wood 
into which has been rubbed wax or oils, thus filling the pores, 
making the wood impervious to glue. The call boards are heated 
in a steam room to a temperature of about two hundred and 
twenty-five degrees. By inserting the call boards thus heated, 
the glue which has partly cooled and set, is thus brought back to 
life. Without artificial heat, a considerable period of time, per- 
haps three weeks, would be required for the glue to set, so that 
the process of milling and finishing may be carried on. This 
period has been shortened to over-night by installing a drying 
room into which the stock is put at night and then subjected to a 
heat of about one hundred and fifty degrees. By morning, the 
stock is thoroughly dry and then may pass on to the milling and 
finishing rooms. 

In finishing piano feet, the veneer is applied directly to the 
core stock, eliminating the cross beading. In this process, the 
glue is applied to one side only of the veneer, after which the 
clamping process takes place. The veneer projecting beyond the 
core stock, is trimmed off flush, by a hand operated knife, and the 
end surface is smoothed for the veneering, by being held against 
a belt of revolving sandpaper. Veneer is then applied to the 
end and clamped with hand operated screw clamps. Veneer 
stock which may be used during the course of the work may be 
mahogany, poplar, rosewood, oak, walnut, satin wood, marble 
wood and teak wood. Helpers assist the veneer layer. 

Special knowledge required of all veneer workers. — The veneer 
marker and cutter must be familiar with the office order system, 
the kinds of veneer stock and methods of matching. The veneer 
layer must know the proper temper and consistency of glues for 
core and veneer woods, the proper temperature for stock and call 
boards and the proper pressure for the hydraulic press. 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



151 



Special skill required. — The veneer matcher must quickly recog- 
nize grains which will match, and the cutter must place the stock 
on the cutting table so that there will be the least possible waste. 
The taper must adjust the taping machine, seeing that the cone 
wheels draw the veneer together and that the taping ribbon is 
applied firmly. The veneer layer must be skilful in feeding the 
cross beading through the glue spreader, must properly place the 
cross beading on the stock, and the veneer stock upon the cross 
beading. All these operations must be performed quickly. He 
must operate the hydraulic press and apply the lock clamps. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The knowledge 
and skill necessary for the veneer operations may be obtained dur- 
ing the course of the work by following the instruction of the fore- 
man and by observing other workers. 

Promotion. — Veneer markers may become veneer cutters; 
veneer laying helpers may become veneer layers. 



The Key Makers 



Key making is done on 
key maker, is the contractor. 



contract. The foreman who is the 
All workers are responsible to him. 




Ivory Laying Machines. 



152 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



What the key layer out does. — ^The base of the piano keys is 
wood. A great number of narrow strips of basswood are glued 
together and surfaced, forming the wood plate from which all keys 
are cut. By the guidance of a template, the layer out marks on 
the plate the outline of all keys and the pivoted holes for each 
key. All holes are drilled, still using the template as a guide. A 
second operator reams out each hole. 

What the key maker does. — The key layer, who is the foreman, 
cuts, glues and clamps the ivory veneer for each key, to the key 
plate. He uses any one of five grades of ivory. The ivory is cut 
in strips about the width of a piano key. These strips are hung 
in an oven, the temperature of which varies from one hundred to 
one hundred and twenty degrees. When sufficiently dry, the 
key maker cuts the stock into key veneer sizes, by means of an 
ivory joiner, by which perfect right angles are obtained. 

He next lays the strips of ivory on a ledge above the key plac- 



1 

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k. 






J-*:''S5;:|i|| 



Key Scraping. 



ing machine, in the same order which the keys are to be on the 
piano. When this is done, he starts at one end of the machine and 
applies a light coat of glue on the under side of the ivory and quick- 
ly snaps it in position on the wooden key plate. This operation is 



Chap. IX] 



Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



153 



repeated until all the keys have been laid. He then applies a 
number of clamps which are attached to the machine and with 
one movement brings them all directly over the ivory keys. Pres- 
sure is brought both from the top and back of the machine by 
means of geared wheels. From experience, the operator knows how 
much pressure to apply. 

What the key shaver does. — After the keyboard has been cov- 
ered with ivory strips, each one representing a key, it is taken to 
the ivory shaving machine. The operator of this machine holds 
the keyboard under a rapidly revolving edged tool, circular in 
shape, which revolves in a horizontal plane the full length of the 
keyboard, and which shaves any ^'high spot" which it meets in 
traveling over the board. As the shaving blade progresses, the 
operator regulates it almost constantly, so as to take off the shav- 
ings of ivory wherever necessary. The result of this operation is 
a perfectly smooth ivory surface, with no ridges or high spots. 

What the key cutter does. — By means of a template, the exact 
outline of each key is marked on the ivory covered key plate. 
By using the band saw, the cutter cuts the plate into piano keys. 
There is just enough space between each key as marked out on 




Key Sawing. 



154 Occupational Information [Part II 

the plate, for the width of the band saw. Thus great care in 
sawing is required. 

What the key filer does. — The key filer files the ivory veneer 
covering each key even with the wood, slightly bevelling the 
outer edges. This work is done by a woman. 

What the key sander does. — The sander presses each key firmly 
against the sanding machine, which is covered with a very fine 
grade of sandpaper. This smoothes the ivory, preparatory to pol- 
ishing. 

Special knowledge required of all key makers. — All key makers 
must know the various grades of ivory, and how to operate the 
respective machines incident to each key operation enumerated. 
The key maker proper must be a thorough judge of ivory quali- 
ties and how to dry and cut veneer stock; how to prepare glue 
and keep it properly tempered and how to lay ivory and operate 
the clamping machine. As he supervises the work of others, he 
must be an expert in each particular part of the process. 

Special skill required of all key makers. — The layer out and 
driller need merely the technical skills necessary to place the tem- 
plate on the key plate board, and drill the holes as indicated. 
The key maker, during the course of his work, brings to play a 
large variety of skills, difficult to acquire. He must be expert in 
drying ivory stock, in cutting stock to exact size without waste, 
in preparing glue, in key laying, and lastly, in key clamping. He 
must be able to shave, file and polish keys and show others how 
to perform these operations. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — During the 
course of the work, layers out, markers, shavers, filers and Sanders 
may develop the necessary proficiency by following the foreman's ' 
instructions. The present foreman served an apprenticeship 
abroad, but no scheme is here effective for training new foremen. 

Promotion. — No promotional scheme is operative in this 
department. 

The Action Finishers 

What hammer and damper fitters do. — Hammer and damper 
fitting require a greater degree of skill than any other action fin- 
ishing occupation; of the two, hammer fitting is the more difficult. 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Tkades 



155 



The hammer fitter strikes the key aj2;ain and again, adjusting the 
hammer so that it strikes the wires in exactly the proper position 
at the proper angle. He mounts the hammer in position and 
glues it carefully into place on a wooden joint. The damper fitter 
notes the damper action; whether it raises simultaneously as the 
key is struck, and falls against the wire as soon as the key returns 
to its position. He mounts and glues the damper into correct 
position. 

What the action installer does. — The action installer is an as- 
sembler who fits the action carefully into its designated position 
in the piano case. Each part must fit into correct position in 
order to operate properly. The work is not considered highly 
skilled. 

What the key finisher does. — -The operator installs each key in 
its proper place in the piano. The keys are all laid out on a table 
or board before being installed, then each key is fitted into its 
respective position and adjusted so as to operate perfectly with 
the hammer and damper. 

Special knowledge required of all action finishers. — All action 




Regulating Piano Action. 



156 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



finishers must be familiar with the mechanical action of piano 
tone production, as related to the operation of keys, hammers and 
dampers. They must know the function each part is expected 
to perform and how to adjust it to obtain the desired results. A 
knowledge of how to prepare glue and keep it in good condition 
and how to glue wood and felt is required. 

Special skill required of all action finishers. — Skills consist of 
quickly and accurately making fine and careful adjustments to 
action parts, and of using the tools of the trade dexterously. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained during the process of the 
routine work. 



Promotion.- 
fitter. 



-The damper fitter may be promoted to hammer 




Inspecting Piano Player Mechanism. 



The Fly Finisher 

What the worker does. — The fly finisher fits together into posi- 
tion in the case, the smaller wood parts after the piano is painted 
and polished. This work corresponds to the final assembling in 
the automobile industry. 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 157 



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158 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



The Tool and Hardware Makers 

For a description of the work of tool makers, see Chapter VIII, 
''Railroad Repairing, Machine Tool Manufacturing and Other 
Metal Industries." 




Installing Piano Action. 



Miscellaneous Occupations 

What the bellows maker does. — The bellows maker receives the 
board and felt, cut to size. He glues and nails the felt to the 
boards, resulting in the formation of a rectangular shaped bel- 
lows, operated by springs controlled by foot pedals. 

What the action assembler does. — ^The action assembler sets the 
valves of the player in place and regulates them. The work is 
entirely mechanical. 

What the motor assembler does. — The motor assembler assembles 
motor crank, sprocket crank hanger, guides and connecting wires 
and connecting tubes. After assembling, he ''tunes" each of the 
four cyhnders, so that each "fires" and opens in its proper order. 

What the action regulator does. — The action regulator mounts 
the hammers and keys in their proper positions, and observes the 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 



159 



dip or stroke of each hammer under manual and automatic con- 
trol, as both player and piano action must have the same stroke. 

What the hushers, valve setters, etc., do. — These women operators 
work on a number of small and delicate parts, required in player 
piano construction. They cut and paste felt strips and bushings 
on boxes; glue and shellac rubber tubing on pneumatic; glue leather 
on bars, valves and other small parts; and operate punch presses 
in cutting leather and paper washers. 




Marking Music Rolls. 



What the stencil cutter does. — The stencil cutter cuts from the 
master copy, the stencil which is placed in the automatic music 
roll cutting machine. The master copy is cut by the manual 
playing of the piano. It is cut on specially prepared, light flex- 
ible paper, by a machine which is connected with the manually 
played piano. This flexible paper is pasted over a strong, heavy 
paper. The stencil cutter works with a chisel, cutting each note 
by hand. When the roll is finished, it is tried out on a player 
piano. The copy comes back with marked corrections. In order 
to see all defects, the operator lays the copy on a table with a 
transparent glass top, under which is a row of lighted electric 
lights. As she unrolls the master copy, the pencil marks on the 



160 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Cutting Master Patterns for Music Rolls. 

notes show what changes are to be made. These are made, and 
after the copy has been rechiseled, it is ready to be used for mak- 
ing other copies on the cutting machine. 

What the music roll cutter does. — The niusic roll cutter lays the 
stencil cut on heavy paper by hand, over sixteen blank player 
rolls. She mounts the entire number of rolls in the machine, 
which operates on the principle of the Jacquard loom. It has 
eighty-eight long finger like levers, known as finders, and as the 
master roll passes along, the finder comes in contact with a cut 
and the machine automatically punches the sixteen sheets. 

The Coverer and Trimmer 
The Cutter, Sewer and Tufter 

In the manufacture of caskets, these occupations require 
practically the same type of knowledge and skill as those em- 



Chap. IX] Cabinet Making and Allied Trades 161 




Music Roll Perforating Machines. 




Glueing Bellows for Player Pianos. 



11—5463 



162 Occupational Information [Part II 

ployed in similar occupations in the manufacture of automobiles 
and workingmen's wear. For occupational descriptions, the 
reader is referred to Chapter IV, ''Automobile Manufacturing"; 
and Chapter XII, ''The Knitting, Glove and Workingmen's Wear 
Industries." 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

These industries require skilled wood machine operators- 
gluers, cabinet makers, benchmen, assemblers, finishers, pack, 
ers, yard hands and laborers, in addition to a large number of 
workers engaged in trades peculiar to one of the three industries. 

Operators of wood machines are, in the main, confined to one 
machine which they have learned to operate by first serving as an 
offbearer. Evening courses in plan reading and in the operation 
of various wood machines, should be provided for ambitious 
workers. Such courses would assist workers in attaining pro- 
motion to foremanship positions. Trade extension evening 
courses should be provided for cabinet makers, benchmen and 
assemblers. Such courses should be on a short unit basis and in- 
clude plan reading, trade mathematics and technical work in cab- 
inet making. 

The musical instrument industry of Richmond, employs not 
only many workers in the lines above mentioned, but workers in 
a large number of highly skilled occupations peculiar to the in- 
dustry. Among these are designers and draughtsmen, veneer 
layers, sounding board makers, keymakers, action finishers, fly 
finishers, stringers, tuners and many others too numerous to here 
record in detail. The number employed in any of the above 
lines is insufficient to justify the Richmond Board of Education in 
providing trade preparatory or trade extension courses. Further- 
more, the expense of machines, tools and other equipment, and of 
the teaching staff would be prohibitive. If Indiana is to con- 
tribute to the education of these workers and to the training of 
new workers in these highly specialized and skilled occupations 
in order to aid in the development of the musical instrument in- 
dustries, a State Middle Technical School will have to be estab- 
lished. Such a school for this industry might well be located in 
Richmond, and attendance open to workers now engaged in the 
industry, residing in Indiana or other states, and to young men 
who have not entered the industry, but who desire to prepare 
for it. 



CHAPTER X 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: JOB AND NEWS- 
PAPER PRINTING 

The printing industry in Richmond is typical of any town of 
its size in ihe state. There are two newspaper and six job shops. 
The job shops print college annuals, bulletins, catalogs, office 
forms and stationery and miscellaneous job work. All the jol) 
shops do pamphlet binding, but one has a well organized bindery, 
doing high grade bookbinding. 

The printing industrj^ has followed the natural course of the 
development of the productive and mercantile life in the city. 
It is estimated that there has been at least a twenty per cent, 
increase in output and volume in the printing business during the 
last decade in Richmond. 

As the printing trades are well standardized the country over, 
and have been studied with great care in previous surveys, no 
field work was done in Richmond in preparation for this report. 
The facts were obtained through conferences and by reports 
furnished by workers and proprietors. Previous survey reports 
of the printing trades upon which dependence may be placed, are: 

Report of Richmond, Virginia, Survey, Bulletin Number 162, United 

States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D. C. 
Report Printing Trades, Cleveland Education Survey, Russell Sage 

Foundation, New York City, N. Y. 
Printing Trades of Cincinnati, Chamber of Commerce, Cincinnati, 

Ohio. 
Report of MinneapoHs Survey, Bulletin Number 21, National Society 

for Promotion of Industrial Education, New York City, N. Y. 

Characteristics of the Trades 

Small shops. — The job shops of Richmond are all small, none 
of which employ over twent}^ workers. The filling of orders re- 
ceived locally and from the Richmond district comprise the bulk 
of the work. 

Proprietors and workers. — The majority of the proprietors of 
small shops take an active part in the work of the shop, generally 
in hand compositing and display work. 

(163) 



164 



Occupational Information [Part II 




A Modern, Well Lighted. Newspaper Composing Room. 




A Newspaper Stereotyping Room. 



Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 165 

Proof reading. — As a rule, proof reading is done by the female 
office assistant, who is also bookkeeper, order clerk and stenog- 
rapher. 

Engraving and lithography. — None of the various steel and 
copper plate engraving, lithographing, and photo-engraving pro- 
cesses are carried on in Richmond. The newspaper shops send 
orders of this nature to Dayton, Ohio. 

Apprenticeship. — There is a well defined system of apprentice- 
ship in the printing trades. The apprenticeship agreements 
specify length of apprenticeship, scale of wages and necessary 
ir.struction. The details of apprenticeship are reported in the 
occupational analysis. 

"All around worker s.^^ — There is a continual interplay of 
participation and suggestion among workers themselves in the 
various printing trades, and between workers and proprietors. The 
variety of work to be done and the small number of total workers 
employed, means that specialization in the printing trades is not 
carried as far in Richmond as in larger cities. The ''all around 
printer" in Richmond is most valued; in fact, under existing condi- 
tions, there is no place in Richmond for the exclusive specialist. 
For example, none are employed exclusively as stone hands, 
stereotypers or makeup men. All these lines of work are done by 
either compositors or pressmen. While the range of work required 
of each man tends to develop a worker of greater adaptability, it 
is also true that these conditions tend to reduce or raise all workers 
to the same level of speed, efficiency and wage. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males Females 

Proprietors* 3 

Composing foremen 5 

Compositors : Hand and machine 28 

Apprentice compositors 6 

Head pressmen and foremen 4 

Pressmen, Cylinder, platen and web 11 

Apprentice pressmen 3 

Press-feeders: Cylinder, platen (2 males on 

part time) 7 

Cutting machine operators 2 

Binding operators 3 10 

Total 72 11 

*OnIy proprietors who actually engage in the printing processes are listed. 



166 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 167 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Working conditions. — With one exception, the printing trades 
are carried on in Richmond in converted buildings, with all the 
defects usually present in such structures. This means inade- 
quate light, ventilation and floor space. One modern building, 
the home of a newspaper print shop, is a splendid example of 
improved conditions resulting from building a structure particu- 
larly for the work to be done. It is well lighted, heated and 
ventilated and a constant source of inspiration to workers to put 
forth their best efforts. 

Hazards and inherent character of work.- — From the standpoint 
of health, printing is a hazardous occupation. Compositors, for 
example, are prone to lung diseases. The number of deaths among 
them, from pulmonary tuberculosis, is more than double that in 
most outdoor occupations and far greater than in most indoor 
occupations. Linotype operators are in constant danger of lead 
poisoning. 

Hours. — An eight-hour day is observed in all the Richmond 
print shops. This is made possible by a very complete trade 
union organization. During July and August, the dullest months 
in the trade, several shops work but four hours on Saturday. 
The four hours thus lost each Saturday are made up by overtime 
during the winter and spring months. 

Source and selection of workers. — The foremen of press and 
composing rooms, as a rule, hire all employees in their respective 
departments. Thus, workers secure positions by direct applica- 
tion to foremen. In the newspaper shops there is a general under- 
standing that those employed as substitutes will be eligible for 
appointment in case of a vacancy in the regular force. As sub- 
stitutes have prior right to vacancies, it is essential that great care 
be exercised in employing substitutes. 

The Foreman Compositor 

What the worker does. — The foreman of the composing room 
oversees the work of all the hand and machine compositors and the 
apprentices. He may also do proof reading and makeup and im- 
position work. The foreman receives his orders directly from the 
proprietor, assigns work to each compositor, keeps check on time 



168 Occupational Information [Part II 

for each job and the efficiency of each worker. He is responsible 
for all phases of composition, makeup and imposition. 

In the newspaper shops, a single foreman superintends the 
work of composing, stereotyping, and press work. He must keep 
the workers up to maximum speed and route the work so that 
delay may be avoided. 

Special knowledge and skill required. — The foreman must 
possess the knowledge and skill required of all compositors, plus 
directive and managerial ability and ability to estimate costs and 
time. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The foreman is 
picked from among the compositors and he has usually learned his 
trade in a four years' apprenticeship. As a rule, however, special 
school courses in estimating, design, English, and punctuation 
are necessary for efficiency. 

Wages. — Weekly wages range from twenty to twenty-five 
dollars. 

The Hand and Machine Compositor 

What the worker does. — In hand composing the compositor 
picks the type, one by one, from a case, places them in a composing 
stick, and when a number of lines are composed removes them from 
the stick to a galley. The work composed may be straight com- 
position, tabular matter or display work, or a combination of all 
three. After a galley is made up a proof is taken and after making 
the changes indicated in the corrected proof, the compositor 
proceeds with the process of imposition. The galleys of composed 
type are divided into page lengths, cuts are inserted and the whole 
is tied together with a strong cord. Proofs are then taken and cor- 
rections made, after which the pages of type are placed on a metal 
or stone topped table. The type is levelled with a mallet, and when 
properly spaced is locked in a chase. When so locked, the form is 
ready for the pressman, or, in newspaper shops, for the stereo- 
typer. The completion of these processes concludes the work of 
the hand compositor. 

In linotype compositing, the operator strikes a key, which re- 
leases a matrix or mould of a letter. The matrix falls into a trough 
and when a line is complete, molten metal is automatically forced 
against it, and a solid line of type thus formed. Speed and accu- 
racy are essential in ordinary machine composing, and in news- 
paper work speed is one of the prerequisites of the job. Linotype 



Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 169 

operators in Richmond must also be able to adjust their machines 
and keep them in good repair, as no linotype machinists are em- 
ployed except in the newspaper shops. 

Both hand and machine compositors in Richmond are re- 
quired, in additon to composing, to do proof reading, makeup and 
imposition, and the work of the stone man. For a complete 
description of all these phases of work, see pages 106 to 113 of the 
Richmond, Virginia, Survey Report. 

Special knowledge and skill required. — See Richmond, Virginia, 
Survey Report. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Part of the knowl- 
edge and skill required of the compositor are obtained during the 
period of apprenticeship, and through the correspondence course 
required of apprentices. Special school courses in English, design, 
punctuation, and proof reading are essential to develop the pro- 
ficiency now required in the trade. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Good eyesight, memory, 
manual dexterity and steady nerves are required. 

General education required. — A complete elementary school 
education is essential before entering the printing trades. 

Promotion. — The hand compositor may be promoted to 
machine composition, and to composing room foreman. 

Wages. — The union scale is as follows: Newspaper composi- 
tors, hand, nineteen dollars weekly; machine, twenty dollars 
weekly; job shop compositors, hand, seventeen dollars; machine, 
eighteen dollars; machinists and operators, twenty dollars. 

The Apprentice Compositor 

Number. — There are six composing apprentices in Richmond. 
According to the union regulations, there may be one apprentice 
to each eight journeymen, with proportional increases. No one 
can become an apprentice before the age of sixteen, and the term 
of apprenticeship is five years. 

What the ivorker does. — During the first two years, the appren- 
tice works in the composing room doing general work, oftentimes 
as a roustabout. In his third year the apprentice joins the union, 
which stipulates that he be employed four hours a day at com- 
position and distribution. During the two following years a 



170 Occupational Information [Part II 

longer period of time each day must be spent in composing. The 
Hnotype machine may be used during the last year. In the last 
year of the apprenticeship the apprentice is required to pursue the 
correspondence course, outlined by the International Typo- 
graphical Union. The course costs thirty dollars. Upon com- 
pleting the course the local union refunds to the apprentice five 
dollars and the employing company five dollars. 

Apprentice requirements. — The desired requirements for an 
apprentice, as set forth in the 1913 report of the United Typo- 
thetse and Franklin Clubs, a national association of proprietors 
of printing establishments, were as follows: 

1. An earnest desire to become a printer. 

2. Good morals. 

3. At least a grammar school education. 

4. Mental alertness. 

5. Sober, industrious, thrifty parents. 

6. Good health — absence of physical deficiencies. 

7. Age, approximately fifteen years. 

8. Full average height. 

9. Not a cigarette smoker. 
10. Tidy in appearance. 

The Head Pressman and Foreman 

What the worker does. — The head pressman usually ''makes 
ready" the forms, adjusts presses, registers, ink feeds, etc., and 
directs the work of other pressmen and press feeders. In one 
establishment the foreman cuts all paper stock. He oftentimes 
must purchase inks and paper stock, and mix inks to obtain the 
desired consistency and color. Each kind of paper used requires 
special press adjustments and ink mixtures, and the foreman is 
responsible for these phases of the work. 

Special knowledge required. — The pressman must be familiar 
with presses, papers and inks of all types. A knowledge of the 
raw material and processes used in paper making, and the in- 
gredients of inks, and the types of inks required for each kind of 
paper is necessary. He must know stock sizes of paper and card- 
board and be able to cut paper so as to have the least possible 
waste. An all around knowledge of the printing business, and 
the ability to fill any position in the shop is required. 



Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 171 

Special skill required. — The foreman must be able to make ready 
forms, to adjust feeding devices, to adjust register and all me- 
chanical parts of the press, to mix inks, to keep color uniform and 
avoid imperfect sheets. 

Hoiu special knoidedge and skill are obtained. — The basic ele- 
ments of knowledge and skill are obtained by working as a press- 
man, and prior to that, by a period of apprenticeship. By these 
experiences, technical skills are developed, but school courses in 
the chemistry of inks, color harmony, and paper making are 
essential in developing the highest skill in a foremanship posi- 
tion. 

Promotion. — Promotion above the foremanship is rare. Many 
foremen become proprietors of shops of their own. 

Wages. — Weekly wages range from twenty-two to twenty- 
five dollars. 

The Pressman: Cylinder, Platen and Web Press 

For a detailed analysis of the work of pressmen and press 
feeders see the Richmond, Virginia, Survey Report, pages 112 to 
117. 

What the cylinder pressman does. — There are two types of 
cylinder presses: Those with a flat bed carrying the form passing 
back and forth beneath a revolving cylinder, and those where the 
paper passes between two revolving cylinders. The latter type 
press is usually termed ^'the web press," and the pressman, the 
"web pressman," while the pressman of the former press is usuallj^ 
termed the ''cylinder pressman." 

The duties of a cylinder pressman consist in putting the form 
on the press, ''dressing" the press for the job and "spotting up" 
a proof with thin tissue paper to even up the impression. When 
there are half-tones in the job, he must "underlay" or "overlay" 
cuts, cut out the light spots and build up the dark spots so that 
the proper details will appear in the finished job. 

The job pressman has practically the same work to perform 
as the cylinder pressman only on a much smaller scale. It is 
not often that he is required to do half-tone work as the smaller 
job presses are not adapted to this class of work. 

The pressman also sees that the printing keeps a proper mar- 
gin, or "registers" as it is called. Either he or the head pressman 



172 Occupational Information [Part II 

selects the ink and regulates the supply. He mast care for his own 
press. This, in itself, is an important part of his work. 

What the platen pressman does. — In the platen press, the form 
and the impression surface are both flat, the print being made by 
bringing them together. Sheets are usually fed by hand and 
presses are operated by foot or electric power. In the larger 
shops, the platen pressman adjusts the form, register, and ink 
supply and the feeder operates the press. 

Where press feeders are not employed, the pressman is also 
the feeder. 

What the web pressman does. — The web press is a complicated 
cylinder newspaper press. The pressman, in Richmond, must 
lock forms on the cylinders, ''dress up the press", adjust register, 
regulate ink supply, roll pressure, and in short, make all the adjust- 
ments to press, forms and paper necessary in printing the news- 
paper. The web pressman is a mechanic of a high order, intrusted 
with the care of a machine composed of many thousands of parts 
and costing many thousands of dollars. 

Special knowledge required. — All good pressmen in Richmond 
may be called upon to operate cylinder or platen presses. They, 
therefore, must possess the technical knowledge relative to 
preparing the machine for the job, mixing inks and adjusting 
feeds for various papers. A knowledge of the chemistry of inks 
and paper making is essential. 

Special skill required. — Special skill involves the ability to make 
ready forms for all presses, to mix inks, to keep color uniform, to 
make all mechanical press adjustments, and to keep the presses 
well cleaned and oiled. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The rudimentary 
aspects of the special knowledge and skill required are obtained in 
the apprentice period, and after this, by continual practice on the 
job, but the introduction of the newer types of presses makes 
specific vocational instruction essential to meet modern require- 
ments. 

General education required. — An elementary school education 
is necessary. 

Promotion. — Promotion beyond the pressman is very unusual. 



Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 173 

Wages. — The union scale of wages is as follows: Cylinder 
pressman, eighteen dollars weekly; platen pressman, fourteen 
dollars weekly; web pressman, eighteen to twenty-five dollars 
weekly. 

The Apprentice Pressman 

What the worker does. — The apprentice pressman follows no 
special scheme of work mapped out for his apprenticeship. He 
usually begins as a platen press feeder, and advances to platen 
pressman; or, he may start as cylinder press feeder and advance 
to cylinder pressman. 

The term of apprenticeship is four years, but obtaining a press- 
man's job with journeyman's wages depends upon the apprentice's 
ability and the opportunities open in the shop. 

Wages. — The beginning wage is usuallj^ six dollars, although 
some feeders receive less than this sum. 

The Press Feeder: Cylinder and Platen 

What the cylinder press feeder does. — The cylinder press feeder 
stands on a platform at the side of the press and feeds the paper 
to the guides. The knack of feeding a cylinder press consists in 
'^combing" the stock down so that it is easy to get hold of; lifting 
the sheet with a slight jerk so that air gets under it and prac- 
tically carries it to the bottom guide; and then sliding it over to 
the side guide. The cylinder carries the sheets through the press 
and then stacks them in neat piles. The feeder also helps clean 
the machine. 

What the platen press feeder does. — The platen press feeder 
places a pile of paper stock on the feeding tray and feeds and re- 
moves a single sheet of stock with each revolution of the driving 
wheel. He places the sheet against the guide when the platen is 
at an almost level position, removes the printed sheet just as the 
press opens, and then inserts another. The expert feeder keeps 
up this rythmical process without a break until the job is com- 
pleted. 

Promotion. — Press feeders, if males, may be promoted to press- 
man, but, if females, no promotion is possible. 

Wages. — Cylinder press feeders receive twelve dollars weekly, 
and platen press feeders receive nine dollars weekly. 



174 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Cutting Machine Operator 

What the worker does. — The cutter cuts sheets and bundles of 
paper stock and cardboard and trims booklets, etc., to the re- 
qmred size, by either a hand or power cutting machine. In some 
shops in Richmond, cutting is done by the press room foreman 
and one of the pressmen who may be idle at the time. 

Special knowledge required. — The cutter must know grades 
and qualities of paper stock and cardboard, and trade designa- 
tions of paper stock. He must be able to determine the size of 
sheet to select from which to cut stock, which will involve the 
least possible waste, and he mast be able to count out small lots 
of stock. He must also understand the measuring scale of the 
cutting machine and the technique of operating the machine. 

Special skill required. — ^The skill relates to dexterous and 
accurate machine operating. Stock may be cut on the power 
overcutting and undercutting machines, or on table and bench 
shears. In operating essentials, the various makes of overcutting 
and undercutting machine paper cutters are similar. Granted 
that the operator has completed all computations, selected stock 
and knows where cuts are to be made, the following are the essen- 
tial operating steps. The back gauge must be set. The line at 
which the gauge is set is determined in one of the following ways, 
depending upon the type of cutter; by the graduated hand rule, 
graduated table, or graduated steel band with finger or dual 
indicator. The back gauge is usually controlled by a hand wheel. 

After the gauge is set, the paper stock is placed on the cutting 
table and clamped in place. Cutting is accomplished by a sharp 
knife controlled by a foot or hand lever, with either electric or 
manual power. 

The essential features in successfully operating table and bench 
shears are setting gauges, clamping stock and operating the hand 
shear blade. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary?- 
knowledge and skill may be obtained by practice on the job, pro- 
vided the cutter has sufficient education to enable him to make 
necessary computations. 

The Bindery Operator 

What the worker does. — Pamphlet binding in Richmond is 
usually done exclusively by women. The work involves folding, 
gathering, stitching, cover pasting or wire stitching. 



Chap. X] Job and Newspaper Printing 175 

In Richmond, two highly skilled bookbinders are employed. 
Each of these workers is highly skilled in all phases of the craft, 
which in a large, highly specialized bindery includes the occupa- 
tions of trimming, rounding, backing, casing in and finishing. 
For an accurate analysis of all bindery processes, see Richmond, 
Virginia, Survey Report, pages 137 to 139. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The future of the printing trades of Richmond depends largely 
upon the proper training of young workers and apprentices. 
According to the present trade agreements, apprentice composi- 
tors are supposed to pursue and complete the correspondence 
course outlined by the International Typographical Union, and 
also to receive instruction from foremen. As a matter of fact, 
the correspondence course, although of good quality, is not pur- 
sued with much enthusiasm or profit by the compositors' appren- 
tices, owing to the difficulty of one's retaining interest and 
enthusiasm in the study at hand without a teacher. 

The Survey Committee recommends that the Richmond Board 
of Education establish an evening course for printers' apprentices 
and helpers. It also urges the pressmen's and compositor's trade 
unions and the employing printers of Richmond to render whole- 
hearted support to the plan and insist that all apprentices attend 
for the minimum time agreed upon by all concerned. This course 
should be taught on a trade extension basis and should include 
these units agreed upon by the representatives of the school, the 
unions and the employers. An advisory committee representing 
these three interested parties should be formed to assist in initiat- 
ing this work and keeping it on a high plane of trade efficiency. 

For the boys who desi^^e to partially prepare for the trade 
l^efore entering it, a vocational trade preparatory course should be 
provided in the Senior High School. This course should be on 
a strict trade basis and about one-half the time of each pupil each 
day should be spent in the shop and the other half in the study of 
related subjects. The duration and content of such a course 
should be determined by the advisory committee. 

The printing course recommended for the Junior High School 
is regarded as a finding course for boys who may be interested in 
determining whether or not they are adapted to the work, and for 
others who might pursue the work on account of their interest 
in the field. This course should be taught according to the best 
standards of the trade, but not on a trade preparatory basis. 



CHAPTER XI 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: BUILDING CON- 
STRUCTION 

Erecting a modern building. — The usual procedure in the con- 
struction of a building of much importance is as follows: The 
owner, after having decided on the location, size and approximate 
cost of the building, engages an architect to make sketches, draw 
plans and furnish specifications. The owner then asks for bids 
from general contractors according to the plans and specifications 
chosen. The lowest bidder is usually awarded the contract which 
he may, and often does, sublet in part to heaters, plumbers, 
painters, and others. The tendency in bidding, however, is for the 
owner or architect to receive bids directly from general contractors, 
plumbing contractors, and painting contractors for the con- 
struction of the respective parts of the building. 

The supervision of the construction of the building usually 
rests with the architect or his representative. The building 
superintendent sees that all materials and construction details 
are as specified. He represents the owner but has nothing to do 
with the work of actual construction, nor with the supervision of 
the workmen on the job. 

In Richmond, many houses, barns, outhouses and garages are 
planned and erected without the services of an architect. In such 
cases the contractor may furnish plans and specifications at the 
suggestion of the owner, or the owner may directly inform carpen- 
ters, plumbers and painters of the work to be done and also super- 
vise the work at all stages. 

Types of structures. — In Richmond, as in most American cities, 
there are buildings of all types of design, constructed from various 
building materials. The first structures in Richmond were built 
from logs, rudely hewn and dovetailed together at the four corners, 
the cracks being filled with clay. At an early date, however, 
brick became a common building material. Now homes are built 
from wood, stone or brick, or a combination of these materials, 

(177) 
I 2—5463 



178 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. XI] 



Building Construction 



179 



upon a stone, brick or concrete foundation. The newer stores, 
banks and office buildings are constructed principally from steel, 
stone and concrete. 

In a city as old as Richmond the remodeling of homes, stores 
and office buildings constitutes a considerable portion of the build- 
ing activities of the city. 



^ 


^^^M^^ 




fM 


mISimmUmWM 


ll 



A Modern Building, of Which This Richmond School is an Example, Re- 
quires Workers from a Great Variety of the Building and 
AUied Trades. 



Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Contractors 25 

Carpenters 85 to 125 

Bricklayers 15 

Electric wiremen 25 

Hoisting engineers (part time) 3 

Lathers 20 

Painters and decorators 60 

Plasterers 16 

Plumbers and steam fitters 25 to 30 



180 OccuPATioxAL Information [Part II 

Occupations and Number Employed — Contini ed. 

Males 

Sheet metal workers 12 to 20 

Stone cutters and masons 5 

Structural iron workers 

Paper hangers 20 to 25 

Laborers 100 to 140 



Total , 509 

As the building trades are well standardized and have in recent 
years been carefull}^ analyzed, no actual field research work was 
done in preparation for this section of the Survey Report. Mem- 
bers of the Survey Staff held thirty-five interviews and conferences 
with workers, contractors and committees representing the Unions, 
employers, and teachers in the industrial department of the high 
school. The occupational analyses of the building trades reported 
in the two following Surveys adequately describe the situation 
in the building trades of Richmond: 

Report of the Vocational Education Survey of Richmond, Virginia, 
Bulletin Number 162 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

The Cleveland Survey — Building Trades. Russell Sage Foundation? 
New York City, N. Y. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Seasonahleiiess. — Of all occupations followed in Richmond 
there are none in which there is a greater amount of irregularity 
of work and seasonal work than in the building trades. This is 
not peculiar to Richmond but is universal, to a greater or lesser 
extent, throughout the United States. Moreover, even during 
the normal and busy seasons the workers in the building trades 
are likely to lose considerable time between jobs. 

There is little work in any of the building trades in Richmond 
during January, February and March. A second ''off season" 
comes in July and August. During these slack seasons the work- 
ers usually secure employment in some of the local factories. 
In fact many of the men in the building trades in Richmond are 
employed regularly for a part of each successive year in the local 
plants as erectors of agricultural implements, painters and stainers, 
cabinet makers, assemblers and wood finishers. Thus, those who 



Chap. XI] Building Construction 181 

follow the building trades must have at least one other trade or 
occupation which they may follow during the long dull season 
periods. 

Mental and physical requirements of workers. — To successfully 
follow any of the building trades, a man of strong physique, cap- 
able of heavy lifting and long hours of hard work, and able to en- 
dure exposure to all kinds of weather, is required. Average 
mental ability and at least a complete elementary eighth 
grade education is also necessary. For a fuller discussion of 
mental and physical requirements of building trades workers, 
see the Richmond, Virginia, Survey for Vocational Education. 

How trades are learned. — At present there is no well defined 
system of apprenticeship in Richmond in any of the building 
trades. A number of the workmen state that they first ''took up" 
the trade in rather an incidental way, perhaps in doing some work 
on their own premises, or for a neighbor, and after working on a 
few such jobs were hired by a contractor. When they had "picked 
up" some information concerning the trade they were recognized 
as journeymen workers. At present there are no young helpers 
under twenty-one years of age in any of the building trades of 
Richmond. The training of new workers for the trades in Rich- 
mond is one of vital importance, but of great difficulty owing to 
the long dull season, and the additional fact that there is a grow- 
ing tendency in Richmond to award contracts for important 
structures to contractors from neighboring cities such as Dayton 
and Cincinnati. The "out of town" contractors usually bring 
their own workmen with them. 

The Contractor 

What the worker does. — The contractor must be a man of busi- 
ness ability with capital of his own or a reputation that will 
enable him to secure the necessary credit for the purchase of ma- 
terials. He must possess detailed knowledge of building con- 
struction and material, and where, how and when to purchase 
materials. Above all he must be a close estimator on material 
and labor. Failure to finish a job in the time allotted often means 
forfeiting part of the profits. Quoting from a recent writer, 
"A man may know all there is to know about the theory of build- 
ing, he may be an expert manager of men, but if he cannot figure 
probable costs he cannot hope to succeed. The open doors of 



182 Occupational Information [Part II 

bankruptcy await the incompetent estimator." In Richmond, 
many contractors were formerly journeymen carpenters, plumbers 
or painters. The contractor should be able to draw floor plans, 
construction details and prepare specifications. He must 
be able to intelligently read and understand catalog descrip- 
tions of new materials, text books on heating, ventilating and 
plumbing, building ordinances, and other printed helps, if he is to 
successfully meet the competition which is continually becoming 
keener. 

The Carpenter 

The local situation. — ^The trade of the carpenter is the most 
important in the building industry. In Richmond the carpenter's 
work is not specialized. He is supposed to be an ^'all round" 
workman, though reports received by the Survey show that many 
in the trade lack the ability to do regular journeyman's work, 
according to present standards. 

What the worker does. — The work of the Richmond carpenter 
involves laying out a building from blue prints and specifications; 
constructing all frame work including sills, studs and posts; 
building scaffolds, applying weather board, shingle and lath; 
erecting the foundation, frame and roof; laying floors, building 
simple stairways, and building and setting door and window 
frames; hanging doors, windows and blinds, and finally putting on 
the inside and outside finish. 

Special knowledge required. — As the carpenter prepares the 
building for much of the work done by painters, finishers and 
plumbers, he should have a general knowledge of all building 
trades. The carpenter, in laying out his work, must be able to 
read plans and specifications and needs at least a complete eighth 
grade elementary education. He should know how to use a steel 
square in laying out work, especially various kinds of rafters. 
A knowledge of the hand and machine tools of the trade, the 
various kinds of woods used and the different methods of building 
construction is necessary. He needs, furthermore, a knowledge 
of mechanical drawing, the ability to read architect's plans, blue 
prints and specifications, and a knowledge of plane and solid 
geometry. 

While the trade affords the opportunity to acquire skill in the 
use of tools, it does not enable a worker to obtain the technical 
knowledge which is necessary for the better tradesman for pro- 
motion to foremanship. 



Chap. XI] Building Construction 183 

Special skill required. — The carpenter must be able to use saws, 
chisels, planes, braces and bits, and other tools of the trade and 
keep them in good condition. 

''The skill of the carpenter may be said to increase as he adds 
to the number of tools in his kit. If his job is to build forms for 
concrete construction, he will need only a hammer, saw and rule; 
if he is engaged in putting on interior trim he may need a whole 
chest of tools. The more tools he can use, the more likely is he 
to become an independent worker." 

What the worker lacks. — Lack of the general "all round" 
knowledge of the trade and of initiative ability are reported as 
common deficiencies of carpenters. Good foremen are said to be 
hard to secure. 

Wages. — Reports show that journeymen carpenters receive 
forty cents per hour for a nine hour day. 

The Bricklayer 

What the worker does.^The bricklayer in Richmond is expected 
to do any kind of bricklaying required in the construction of build- 
ings, foundations, sewers, factory chimneys and boiler foundations. 
He must also be able to do such stone setting as may be easily 
handled. As the major portion of his work consists of building 
walls, it is very necessary that he have the knowledge of the 
various methods of bonding. He must be proficient also in the 
building of corners, chimney flues, the building in of window and 
door frames, building arches and gables, and in doing trimming 
and ornamental work. It is notable that in Richmond there is no 
specialization whatever in bricklaying. 

Special knowledge required.— The bricklayer must thoroughly 
understand bonding, the practice of ''tieing" a wall together, or 
otherwise strengthening it, by laying header bricks with ends 
toward the ouside of the wall. He should have a workable knowl- 
edge regarding the kind and composition of brick and mortar. It is 
necessary also that he be able to read and work from blue prints 
and specifications. 

Special skill required. — The bricklayer must be skilful in the 
use of the trowel, chisel, hammer, plumb-rule, level line, pins, 
etc., in the erection of straight walls, window frames, arches and 
gables. 



184 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special 
skill required of the workman can be gained while working at the 
trade, but there is little opportunity of acquiring the special 
knowledge while working on the job. The special knowledge should 
be gained before entering the trade, or by evening study while 
learning the trade. 

What the worker lacks. — The Richmond bricklayers are regarded 
as skilful in their technical work of bricklaying. Deficiencies 
concern the reading of architects' plans and specifications, math- 
ematics of the trade and general education. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The work of the brick- 
layer is more hazardous than many of the building trades but less 
so than structural iron work or outside electric wiring. The 
trade involves no great physical exertion, but since the worker 
is exposed to the weather most of the time, his general health 
should be good. 

Wages. — The bricklayer is paid sixty-five cents per hour and 
works eight hours per day. 

The Electric Wireman 

What the worker does. — The interior wireman installs wires 
within buildings for all types of fixtures and appliances. These 
include outlet boxes, fuse boxes, wall switches and lighting, heat- 
ing, bell and elevator fixtures, and such appliances as vacuum 
cleaners, signals, register boxes for watchmen, and electric stoves. 
The work involves boring holes through walls, joists and studing; 
putting in tubes; bending, cutting and installing conduit pipes; 
and placing knobs. In general, the work of the Richmond electric 
wiremen includes the four types of wiring described in the Rich- 
mond, Virginia, Survey: (1) Open work, where wires are mounted 
on cleats and exposed to view; (2) molding work, where wires are 
run in special molding; (3) concealed work, where wires are run 
through knobs and tubes in partitions and walls; and (4) conduit 
work, where wires are run through composition or metal pipes. 

Special knowledge required. — In Richmond the wiremen must 
possess the same special knowledge indicated as required by the 
wiremen in Cleveland, and reported in the Building Trades section 
of the Cleveland Survey. He should be well informed concerning 
city ordinances, state laws, and underwriter's rules governing 



Chap. XI] Building Construction 185 

electrical work. He should also be able to read plans, specifica- 
tions and blue prints so as to find locations for various kinds of 
tubes. He needs a knowledge of the theory of electricity to under- 
stand conductors, insulators, circuits, currents and connections. 

Special skill required. — The manipulative skill needed is not 
of a high order. The electric wireman must be dexterous in using 
the tools of his trade, including pliers, screw drivers, braces and 
bits, hammers and soldering tools. 

The Hoisting Engineer 

There are only three hoisting engineers in Richmond and 
these men are employed at this occupation only part of the time. 

The Lather 

What the worker does. — In Richmond the work of the lather is 
sometimes done by the carpenter. This practice is current on 
small jobs where few men are employed. The practice of the 
carpenter doing the work of the lather is gradually decreasing. 

The lather applies both wood and metal lath. In applying 
wood lath, he fills his mouth with nails, places the lath in 
position, using both hands, removes a nail from his mouth, and 
hammers it into place with a lathing hatchet. 

Metal lath may be fastened with special wire fastenings, but 
is ordinarily nailed to the surface in much the same manner as 
wood lath. 

Special knowledge required. — The special knowledge required 
is extremely limited, but if the worker hopes to become a foreman 
he needs to know how to figure yardage, measure work and read 
plans, in addition to figuring labor costs and cost of materials. 

Special skill required. — It does not take long to acquire the 
skill needed. It is gained by practice. Speed is the prime 
essential. 

Wages. — The lather receives a wage varying from thirty-five 
to fifty cents per hour and works nine hours per day. 

The Painter and Decorator 

What the worker does. — In Richmond, the painter is required to 
work on both outside and inside jobs. In addition to the work of 



186 Occupational Information [Part II 

painting, many journeymen do staining, stenciling, graining, 
varnishing and paper hanging. 

In repainting or refinishing old work, the painter removes 
the old finish by using the gasoline torch, scraper and sandpaper, 
and in some cases, a varnish solvent. With new work the surface 
must be properl}^ smoothed with sandpaper after which the prim- 
ing coat of paint is applied. All cracks and holes are then filled 
with putty and two or more coats of color are then applied. 

In staining the painter may apply a solution of dyes to bring 
out the color in the wood, or show the grain, or he may expose 
the surface to ammonia fumes, or coat the surface with ammonia 
the result being a nut brown color. In filling wood surface, pre- 
paratory to interior finishing, either a liquid or paste filler may 
be used. 

The work of the painter may also involve graining. After 
two coats of color have been applied, a coat of graining mixture, 
the color of the wood desired to be represented, is applied. The 
grain imitation is obtained by first drawing a coarse comb and then 
a fine comb over the surface, after which the figure effect is ob- 
tained with the thumb or piece of cloth. 

Special knowledge required. — The house painter should have a 
thorough knowledge of mixing paint and of color harmony. He 
should not only be skilful in the use of his brushes, but should 
understand how to care for them. The ability to construct scaf- 
folds and ''swing" rigging as well as the ability to climb well and 
work from ladders without becoming dizzy is required. He 
should also have a knowledge of the composition of paints, oils, 
varnishes, fillers, how to test them and when to use each to the 
best advantage. 

The painter should be able to estimate a job as to cost of ma- 
terial and labor. He should understand the diseases and dangers 
of the trade in order that he may take every precaution to avoid 
them. 

Special skill required.. — Manipulative skill varies with the type 
of work. For body coats little skill with the brush is needed; 
for striping, lettering and appljdng finishing coats a high degree 
of skill is necessary. 

What the worker lacks. — The reports received by the Survey 
show that many of the journeymen are deficient in knowledge of 
the trade in all branches. 



Chap. XI] Building Consteuction 187 

Hazards and inherent character of ivork. — -The greatest hazards 
of the trade are from ''lead poisoning" and falHng from scaffolds 
and ladders. 

Wages. — The painter receives wages of thirty-seven and one- 
half cents per hour, and works nine hours per day. 

The Plasterer 

What the worker does. — The plasterer places palster on walls, 
ceilings and other surfaces, and does ornamental work on cornices, 
moldings, etc. On flat surfaces three coats are usually laid. 
The first coat composed of plaster containing hair is put on, well 
''scratched" and smoothed. When the first coat is dry, the 
second is put on and "floated." This coat contains no hair. 
The third coat, which is a finish coat, consists of lime and plaster 
of Paris. This is put on very thin and the surface smoothly 
finished. In cornices, molding, and other ornamental work, the 
plasterer usually "runs" his material in place. Plaster for such 
work is made of lime and plaster of Paris, stucco or similar 
material. 

In the work of plastering the plasterer uses a hawk, a small 
square board with a handle in the center of the lower side used to 
hold mortar; a scratcher, a tool made of sharpened wooden slats 
nailed on two strips; and a float, a straight piece of wood a foot 
long with a curved handle used to level a mortared surface. He 
also uses trowels, brushes, paddles, molds, rods and other tools 
of the trade. 

Special knowledge required. — The work requires considerable 
skill and an ordinary degree of intelligence, except ornamental 
work, where considerable technical knowledge is required. The 
reading of plans and specifications, drafting patterns and making 
templates is required of all first class plasterers. 

Special skill required. — Manipulative skill, in the main, in the 
use of the tools of the trade is necessary. 

What the worker lacks. — The common deficiency is a lack of 
general education. 

Wages. — Reports show that the plasterers receive fifty-five 
cents per hour for eight hours per day. 



188 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Plumber and Steam Fitter 

What the worker does. — The plumber installs waste, water, 
sewer and gas pipes, and sets in place wash bowls, bath tubs, 
toilets and all toilet auxiliaries. 

Special knowledge required. — -The plumber must know how to 
cut and thread pipe to make the different joints, and especially 
must know how to wipe a joint. He must be able to bend lead 
pipe without breaking it or doing it other injury. It is necessary 
that the plumber understand considerable of building construc- 
tion as he must install plumbing systems in the various types of 
buildings. The ability to use the 'Vater test" for joint testing, 
and also a knowledge of siphons, traps, vents and pumps, as well 
as the building codes of the city are required. 

If the plumber expects to advance far in the trade he should 
have a knowledge of physics and such chemistry as can be applied 
to the trade. It is also necessary that he should be able to read 
working drawings and be able to lay out complete plumbing and 
drainage systems. 

Special skill required. — The small range of manipulative skill 
required is neither wide nor difficult to obtain as the tools with 
which he works are comparatively few in number and simple 
to operate. Among the tools are the shave hook, the ladle, tap 
borers, joint runners, wrenches, chisels, braces and bits and pipe 
threaders. It is often said that the test of plumber's mechanical 
ability is his ''joint wiping." 

What the worker lacks. — The common deficiency is the lack of 
the scientific knowledge of the trade which prevents workers from 
meeting a new situation intelligently. The plumber should have 
at least a complete elementary school and preparatory trade 
vocational education, if he expects to advance in his trade. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Although the occupa- 
tion has not been considered unhealthy, there are dangers from 
gases, wastes and dampness. Especially is this true of repair 
jobs. 

Wages. — The wages paid are thirty-five to forty-five cents per 
hour for nine hours per day. The ''house" receives sixty cents 
per hour for the services of the plumber. 



Chap. XI] Building Construction 189 

The Sheet Metal Worker 

What the worker does. — The sheet metal worker in the building 
trades makes and erects water spouts, gutters, sky-Hghts, fire 
doors, gates and metal sash. In Richmond he also installs hot 
air furnaces and hot and cold air pipes. 

Special knowledge required. — The sheet metal worker must be 
able to draft and to construct pipes and tanks of various sizes 
and shapes. He must be able to read blue prints. In the making 
of an intricate joint, as is pointed out in Cleveland Education 
Survey of the Building Trade, rule of thumb methods cannot be 
followed successfully. 

Special skill required. — ^The work involves the use of light pieces 
of metal and the worker needs to be dexterous in handling his 
materials. Manipulative work includes the use of forming, 
punching, cutting, riveting and soldering tools. The ability to 
draft the pattern and lay out the work prior to cutting and form- 
ing is of prime importance. 

What the worker lacks. — ^Perhaps the most common deficiency 
of the sheet metal worker is his inability to read blue prints and 
specifications, draft patterns and estimate capacity for heating 
and ventilating systems. 

Wages. — The wages received are forty cents per hour for nine 
hours per day. 

The Structural Iron Worker 

There are no structural iron workers employed in the building 
trades of Richmond. Workers from neighboring cities are em- 
ployed when needed. 

For a detailed description of the structural iron worker, see 
the Report on the Building Trades of the Cleveland Survey. 

The Stone Cutter and Mason 

It is reported that there has been a steady decrease in the 
number of stone cutters and masons during the last decade. This 
decrease is due to the growing use of concrete, steel and terra 
cotta. It is noted from the table of occupations in the building 
trades that but five of the five hundred workers are stone masons. 
The Richmond, Virginia, Vocational Education Report contains 



190 Occupational Information [Part II 

a description of work of the stone cutter and mason, which cor- 
rectly describes the work in these fields in Richmond. 

The Paper Hanger 

What the worker does. — The analysis of the work of the paper 
hanger reported in the Richmond, Virginia, Survey, adequately 
describes the trade in Richmond. The essential points are here 
reproduced. 

The work of the paper hanger consists of papering and re- 
papering. In papering new surfaces, the paper hanger first 
applies a coat of the glue sizing. If the walls have been previously 
papered, the old paper must be removed, cracks and depressions 
filled with plaster, after which the wall is sized. The new paper 
trimmed and cut with a hand or machine knife, is made ready 
for pasting. The paper hanger first applies the paste to the paper, 
folds the paper and allows it to soak to prevent blistering before 
hanging it. He then hangs it on the wall, pressing it down with a 
brush, working from the top of the wall downwards. 

Special knowledge required.— The paper hanger must possess 
a thorough knowledge of glue and paste mixing, and the kind 
to use for each kind of wall. He must possess the necessary taste 
to lay out panel work, and to match figured paper. A knowledge 
of the fundamentals of space breaking as applied to border widths, 
panels and molding lines is also essential. 

Special skill required. — Dexterity in manipulating paper, in 
addition to the proper handling of brushes, rollers, knives, and 
scissors are essential to the paper hanger. 

What the worker lacks. — The most striking deficiency of the 
paper hanger is lack of knowledge of color harmony and princi- 
ples of applied design in space breaking. ■ 

The Laborers 

The building trades laborers include hod carriers, cement 
laborers, lumber yard men, teamster's helpers, and carpenters' 
helpers. For a full description of the work of the building trades 
laborers see the report of the Richmond, Virginia, Survey. 



Chap. XI] Building Construction 191 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

For all of the building trades occupations day preparatory 
vocational education is possible. It is doubtful, however, if the 
field in Richmond is broad enough to justify the maintenance of 
such courses on an all day trade preparatory basis. 

If there are, however, a sufficient number of boys desiring day 
courses in preparation for any of the building trades, the Com- 
mittee recommends that such day courses be established and taught 
on a strictly trade preparatory basis. If there were young helpers 
or apprentices in any of the building trades, the Survey Com- 
mittee would recommend that during the dull seasons, helpers 
and apprentices be required to attend day vocational courses. 
There are no such young helpers or apprentices in Richmond. 

For the men already in the building trades, the Richmond 
evening school can be of real service. 

For contractors, evening courses should include a study of 
types of buildings, estimating materials needed, plan reading, 
study of building construction and making of contracts and build- 
ing specifications. 

For carpenters, evening courses should include laying out 
of stairs and roofs, plan and specification reading and architectural 
drawing. 

There are probably not enough bricklayers, hoisting engineers, 
sheet metal workers or stone masons to justify evening courses. 
If, however, a group of sufficient number from any of these trades 
could be formed, evening instruction on a trade basis should be 
provided. 

It is concluded that no evening courses are necessary for elec- 
tric wiremen, lathers, painters and plasterers in the building 
trades. 

Evening classes for plumbers might profitably be offered. 
Such courses should include plan reading and estimating, building 
construction, as affecting plumbing, erection of fixtures, prin- 
ciples of physics and chemistry underlying operation of plumbing 
systems and state laws concerning the practice of the trade and 
building erection. 

In every case where any of the above outlined evening courses 
are offered, they should be taught by a tradesman and super- 
vised by an advisory committee from the trade. 



CHAPTER XII 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: UNDERWEAR, 

GLOVE AND WORKINGMEN'S WEAR 

MANUFACTURING 

The underwear, glove and workingmen's wear industries have 
been grouped together because of the similarities of shop organiza- 
tion and product, the large number of facts common to workers in 
each industry and the large number of closely comparable occu- 
pations. 

The three industries in Richmond give employment to 583 
workers, 85 per cent, being women, one-half of which are power 
sewing machine operators. Of the total number employed in these 
industries, 43 per cent, make knit underwear; 48 per cent, gloves; 
and 9 per cent, workingmen's wear. The glove industry gives 
employment to a considerable number of working permit boys and 
girls as formers, turners and packers. 

The Underwear Industry 

Although the underwear industry is not limited to any one 
section of the country the most important centers are New York 
with 35,950 workers and Pennsylvania with 38,206. In Indiana, 
in 1910, there were 4,945 textile workers, 1,933 of which were 
employed in the five hosiery and underwear factories. The Rich- 
mond underwear factory employing 215 female and 34 male workers 
developed since 1910. 

Product and characteristics. — All kinds of knit underwear are 
made for the wholesale and jobbing trade. There is a branch 
factory in Cambridge City. One inherent characteristic of the 
industry is the presence in all parts of the factory of free floating 
lint from the wool and cotton spools and web. 

Factory organization. — The three major divisions of the factory 
are office, factory proper and shipping department. One super- 
intendent oversees the foreman of the spooling, knitting, marking 
and sorting departments; another oversees the foreman of the 

1193) 
13—5463 



194 Occupational Information [Part II 

sewing and finishing departments. Machinists, and their assistants 
who set up, adjust and repair machines and the yard men and 
truckers who transfer stock from one department to another, work 
in these departments when their services are needed. 

How the order is filled. — Orders are made out in triphcate in 
the office. One copy goes to the foreman of the knitting depart- 
ment, who in turn makes out the orders showing the amount and 
kind of yarn to be spooled by each ^'spooler," and the 
kind of yarn to be used on each knitting machine. One copy 
goes to the cutting department foreman who issues orders showing 
the number of each style of garment to be cut. The third copy 
is retained by the shipping clerk, in order that he may check the 
consignment as it is packed for shipment. 

How the garment is made. — The raw material used is spooled 
yarn, which is first rewound to discover and remove imperfections. 
The yarn is then knitted into tubing on circular spring needle 
machines. Washing and dyeing are done outside of the factory. 
When fleeced garments are to be made, the fleecing process is next in 
order. The demand for fleeced garments, however, is steadily 
decreasing. The woven fabric is next marked and cut, all pieces 
belonging to two dozen garments of a given size and kind being 
bundled together. The cut parts are taken to the sewing room for 
the eight different operations: Cuff and ankle sewing, seaming, 
cover seaming, collar sewing, facing, crocheting, buttonholing and 
button sewing. The garment then goes to the finishing depart- 
ment where it is inspected for defects and pressed, measured and 
folded. In the shipping department, each garment is placed in a 
box of the style and color designated by the buyer. These boxes 
are labeled, packed for shipment and consigned to jobbers. 

The Glove Industry 

Of the 67 garment factories of Indiana enumerated by the 
United States Bureau and Labor Statistics in Bulletin Number 160, 
18 manufacture workingmen's gloves and give employment to 
1,473 women being about one-fourth of all engaged in the garment 
industries of the state. 

There are two glove factories in Richmond, one being a branch 
of an Indianapolis concern. These factories employ 279 workers, 
80 per cent, of whom are women, the large majority, sewing ma- 
chine operators. One-half of the men employed are cutters. 
The glove industry gives employment to a considerable number of 
working permit boys and girls in the finishing departments. 



Chap. XII] 



Workingmen's Wear 



195 




196 Occupational Information [Part II 

Product and characteristics. — The gloves manufactured are 
made from heavy outing flannel. They may be plain, with or with- 
out leather lining, and with or without the knit wrist cuff or the 
gauntlet cuff. In the cloth cutting and sewing departments 
there is a great deal of lint floating in the air. The leather used for 
facing is split kip from the skin of a half-grown cow. Inferior 
leather from the quarters, may also be used. Sheepskin and seal- 
skin are occasionally used. 

How the order is filled. — Manufacturing orders are made out 
in duplicate in the office. One is sent to the foreman of the cut- 
ting department indicating the number of each style of glove to 
be cut. Another copy is sent to the shipping clerk from which he 
checks the consignment as it is packed for shipment. 

How the gloves are made. — The glove parts are cut from the raw 
material. There are two divisions of the cutting department, 
one where the leather palms and tips are cut, and one where the 
cloth is cut. In both departments both dies and presses are used. 
The cutting unit is three dozen of each part. From the cutting 
department the stock is taken to the sewing department where 
the gloves are made. In the finishing department the sewed gloves 
are turned right side out, and the seams are pressed by a method 
called ^'forming." They are inspected for defects and packed in 
pasteboard boxes holding a dozen pair each. 

Promotion for girls. — New workers may enter either the sewing 
or finishing departments. Girls under sixteen enter the finishing 
department as formers of canvas gloves or as turners. They may 
be promoted to packers. When a girl becomes sixteen she may 
be promoted to inspecting and from that to head of the department, 
or she may be transferred to the sewing department. A worker 
entering the sewing department may be promoted to the posi- 
tion of assistant forewoman and from thereto forewoman, but, since 
there are in all only two forewomen and two assistants to 184 op- 
erators, such advancement is rare. Because wages are on a piece- 
work basis efficiency brings increased earnings. Some of the 
operators make almost as much as the forewoman. There is 
some difference in the skill required between different operations. 
Leather sewing demands greater skill than cloth sewing; closing 
is more difficult than sewing thumbs; yet piece rates are so placed 
that the more skilled work gives no more opportunity for greater 
earnings than the less skilled. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 197 

Promotion for boys. — Boys under 16 may enter as tip cutters, 
turners or formers. Tip cutters may be advanced to formers 
of leather gloves; and turners to formers of leather gloves or 
packers. From the finishing department boys of sixteen or over 
may be advanced to leather cutting or cloth cutting. Boys 
entering at sixteen may operate the power presses in the cutting 
department. The new worker who enters as a helper in the cloth 
cutting department may advance to spreader and finally to cutter. 
The leather cutter may be promoted to the position of foreman. 
Boys may be transferred to the shipping department. 

The Workingmen's Wear Industry 

The manufacture of workingmen's wear had its inception in 
Richmond in 1885 with the manufacture of overalls. In 1891, 
the factory was enlarged and subsequently part of the plant was 
moved to Cambridge City. At present fifty-four workers are 
employed, ninety per cent, being women. The Richmond factory 
is typical of the twenty-two other establishments in Indiana 
which employ 2,371 workers. 

Product and characteristics. — As the section heading indicates, 
the factories make overalls, jackets, combination overalls and 
jackets, work shirts, work pants and sport shirts. 

How the order is filled. — The materials used and the factory 
output is kept track of as follows: The superintendent receives 
from the office a copy of the original order and a duplicate. The 
order is taken to the marker, who indicates on the back of it the 
length of the '^spreads" and the number needed, after which he 
turns it over to the spreader. The spreader then gets his cloth 
from the stock room, where an account is kept of what is issued, 
then he turns over the original order to the girl who marks the 
labels. When she has finished preparing the labels she returns 
the order to the foreman. The carbon copy is given to the packer. 
He retains it until he has checked it with the number of bundles 
finished, then he turns it to the foreman thus indicating that the 
order is complete. 

How the garment is made. — The pattern is first marked on a 
single thickness of cloth by the marker. Then this marked strip 
is laid on a stack of cloth varying in the number of spreads from 
ninety to one hundred twenty, and varying in length from ten to 



198 Occupational Information [Part II 

thirty yards, according to the size of the order, after which the 
whole stack is cut at once by the cutter who uses an electric knife. 
A bundle girl ties together the pieces belonging to one kind and 
size of garment, into bundles of two dozen each. Cut parts are 
then taken to the sewing department where garments are made. 
On shirts the operations are : Hemming, facing, putting on pock- 
ets, felling, making and putting on collars, buttonholing and sew- 
ing on buttons. On jackets the operations are : Putting on pockets 
and cuffs, felling, putting on collars, buttonholing and button 
sewing. On pants the operations are: Putting in pockets, joining 
seams and putting on bands, finishing, hemming or cuffing, but- 
tonholing and button sewing. After being sewed, threads are cut, 
garments are inspected, pressed, folded and tied one dozen in a 
bundle. 

Promotion. — Among the women there are practically no 
opportunities for promotion except for the increased wages which 
result from increased output under the piece-work system. 
Some kinds of work are more skilled than others but shifting to 
the most skilled work does not mean, necessarily, increased wage. 
Shifting from overalls to shirts is desirable, not because of wage 
increase, but because of lighter materials to handle. A sewing 
machine operator may advance to the position of forewoman but 
such opportunities come but infrequently. 

For the men in the cutting departments the line of promotion 
is from spreading to cutting and from cutting to marking. The 
present foreman of the factory was promoted from the position 
of marker. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 

Occupations and Number Employed 



199 



Occupations 


Underwear 


Gloves 


Workingmens' 
Wear 


Total 




Males 


Females 


Males 


Females 


Males 


Females 


Males 


Females 


Spooling 
foremen . . 


1 

1 
18 

1 


1 
11 










1 


1 


Spooling 

operators . 
Knitting 

foremen . . 










11 










1 

18 

1 
1 
2 

7 

1 

27 



6 




Knitting 
operators . 

Marking and 
cutting 
foremen . . 


























Markers 


21 






1 
1 
1 




21 


Spreaders . . . 




1 






Knife cutters 


6 






Leather cut- 
ting fore- 
men 




1 

27 






Die cutters . . 














Sewing fore- 
women . 




1 

125 
17 

13 
15 


4 

184 
9 




1 

39 
5 

2 


6 


Sewing oper- 
ators . . . 




348 


Inspectors. . . 




31 


Pressers (see 
Chapter 
XIV) ... . 


6 


15 


Folders 








15 


Turners 




7 
15 


11 
12 

1 
6 






7 
15 


11 


Formers. . . . 










12 


Stock girls. 










1 


Packers 




12 




1 


1 
1 


1 


18 


Bundlers .... 




1 


Labelers 












1 
















Total. . . 


33 


216 


51 


227 


4 


49 


88 


492 



200 Occupational Information [Part II 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Piece-work system. — In the three industries, the methods of 
recording the amount done by the workers in the sewing and 
finishing departments are very similar. The worker performing 
the first sewing operation receives with each lot a card with a 
stub bearing lot number, size and a list of operations. This card 
is made up with as many detachable tickets as there are opera- 
tions to be performed. Tickets are arranged in the order in which 
operations are performed, the first operation at the bottom. Each 
worker retains the ticket bearing the name of the operation she 
has performed and signs her name or number to the stub. The 
number of her tickets indicate the amount of work she has done 
and her signature on the stub indicates to the inspector for what 
operation on the lot she is responsible. Minor details in method 
may vary. In one factory, the account is kept by the stock girls 
who have a card for each worker; in another, each worker has a 
card which is punched in the proper place when she gets her 
stock from the stock girl. 

General education required. — The ability to read, write and count 
is desirable though not essential. These abilities are required, 
not for actual factory work but for receiving orders and report- 
ing work done. Except for the labeler in the workingmen's wear 
industry and the spooler and knitter in the underwear factory, 
orders are given verbally by foremen to operators. Knitting 
machine operators of foreign birth whose knowledge of spoken 
English is very limited, and who can not read, have made good. 
The executive positions of superintendent and foreman require at 
least an elementary, and preferably a high school education. 
Markers in the workingmen's wear industry, foremen of cutting 
and knitting departments receive orders in writing, expressed in 
technical terms. Foremen prefer grammar school graduates for 
all lines of work and would like to employ young people who have 
taken two years of high school work. 

Source and selection of workers. — Although the majority of the 
workers live in Richmond, some from surrounding country dis- 
tricts seek employment in these industries. One factory prefers 
residents of Richmond. Machinists are imported from elsewhere 
because none are available here. Workers are secured by adver- 
tising in the newspapers of Richmond and the surrounding towns 
and in the moving picture shows. To attract and hold workers 
two of the factories have installed lunch rooms, and one has added 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 201 

a recreation room and library. To stimulate regularity in at- 
tendance and good work one factory has perfected a Christmas 
Club organization by which every worker on the pay roll from 
March first to December fifteenth, receives $12.75. This company 
offers prizes totalling $600 for perfect work and regular attendance. 

New workers are usually employed by department foremen. 
Identifying information including name, age and residence, may 
be received orally or reported on a special blank. Applicants 
are estimated on the basis of age, experience, appearance and 
general intelligence. Previous experience in sewing is an asset 
for girls who apply for sewing or marking positions. Experience 
in operating a power machine is particularly valuable. Older 
applicants, unless age is offset by experience, are not employed 
because they are too slow and too hard to teach, ''know too much 
already." Neatness in appearance is, of course, an asset. After 
the interview, workers are tried out on the job and retained, 
shifted, promoted or discharged according to ability shown in 
actual work. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — The manufacture of gloves and 
workingmen's wear does not show the seasonable variation which 
is characteristic of the garment trades as a whole. The demand 
is fairly constant the year round because of the nature of the 
product. The busy season begins in the spring or early summer 
and continues till late in the winter. The underwear industry 
shows the usual variation. The factories close from one to 
two weeks in the summer. The working day is from 6:00 a. m. 
to 6:00 p. m., in one factory, and from 7:30 a. m., to 5:00 p. m., in 
another. Three of the factories close at 4:00 p. m., on Saturday. 
Overtime work is demanded occasionally. Some factories pay 
the usual piece rate for overtime, others pay one and a half times 
the regular rate. One factory runs three evenings a week a few 
weeks of the year, but overtime work is optional with the 
individual worker. 

The Spooling Department Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman receives orders from the 
office specifying the amount and kind of yarn to be spooled. He 
makes out from this his directions for each worker. He oversees 
the work and teaches new workers. He starts the spooling ma- 
chines and regulates them. He also works out attachments each 



202 Occupational Information [Part II 

of which do the stripping and cleaning suited to the particular 
yarn which is to be spooled. He makes minor repairs on the 
machines but in case of serious trouble he calls the machinist. 

Special knowledge required. — Besides the special knowledge 
required of the regular spooling operators the foreman must be 
familiar with the office order system and know how to make out 
the order for each worker. He must have a thorough knowledge 
of yarns. 

Special skill required. — The foreman must be something of a 
mechanic in order to keep the machines in perfect adjustment 
and invent the stripping mechanism suited to each kind of yarn 
used. 

How special skill and knowledge are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained on the job by instructions from the 
superintendent and by experimenting. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The foreman should have 
executive and inventive ability. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — As machines are not 
dangerous and gearings and belts are adequately guarded, hazards 
are reduced to the minimum. 

The Spooling Machine Operator 

Machines used. — Spooling machines resemble tables divided in 
the middle by a double row of spindles and carrying a low shelf 
for spools. On the table proper are the cones or bobbins on 
which the thread is finally wound. The thread from the original 
spool is fed through a hole, then through a cleaning and stripping 
mechanism, which, by various devices, brushes out knots and 
imperfections in the yarn. It is then passed around a tension 
''which reveals weak spots in the yarn by breaking it." From the 
tension the thread passes along the arm of a guide to the bobbin 
which is on a spindle. The revolving of this spindle winds the 
yarn on the bobbin. ''The guide arm," over which the yarn 
passes alternately, ascends and descends at a rate gauged to dis- 
tribute the yarn evenly on the bobbin. Every table holds forty 
bobbins, twenty on a side. 

What the worker does. — There is one operator called a "spooler" 
to every table. She receives directions from the foreman con- 



Chap. XII] Wokkingmen's Wear 203 

cerning the kind of yarn to be spooled. She gets the original 
spools of yarn from the stock room, puts them on the machine 
and threads them to the bobbin. She watches the revolving 
bobbins, takes them off when they are full and replaces them with 
empty bobbins. If a thread breaks, the operator stops the bobbin 
by lifting a catch which detaches it from the spindle, ties the thread 
in a weaver's or square knot, and starts the bobbin again by re- 
leasing the catch. If there is anything wrong with the mechanism 
the operator reports it to the foreman at once. She cleans and 
oils the machine. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must know the factory 
system which involves a knowledge of where to get stock, where 
to return work and how to keep a record of the work. She must 
know how to attend the machine as described above and how to 
tie the weaver's knot. 

Special skill required. — Skill in this work consists in performing 
the operations described with speed and accuracy. 

How special knowledge and skill are acquired. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are obtained on the job by instructions from the 
foreman. It takes only a few days to learn the content of a job 
and a few weeks to be reasonably efficient. 

Mental and physical requirements. — ^A girl whose hands are too 
clumsy to tie a knot swiftly would either prove useless in this 
work or would fail to make a living wage. Energy and ambi- 
tion have some chance to operate here as proved by the fact that 
operators during the same period of time turn out varying 
numbers of finished bobbins. The mental part of the work con- 
sists of the capacity to distribute attention in such a way as to 
watch closely all of the forty spindles. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The girl stands at 
her work and walks from one end of the table to the other as the 
machine requires. She sits at the end of the table during the 
intervals when there is nothing to do. There is ample space be- 
tween machines and the lighting is good. 

Wages. — Weekly earnings vary from eight to twelve dollars. 
Work is on a piece basis. 

The Knitting Department Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman receives his orders from the 
office indicating the yarn to be used for each web and how many 



204 Occupational Information [Part II 

yards of each kind of web are to be made. He teaches workers 
how to operate machines and oversees the work at every point. 
He may make adjustments on machines, but serious adjust- 
ments and repairs are made by the machinists. 

Special knowledge required. — Besides the knowledge required 
by the operators the foreman must know how to teach new workers 
and he must know the kinds of yarn used. He must understand 
the operation of the machines thoroughly and how to manage the 
work efficiently. 

Special skill required. — Mechanical skill is needed in adjusting 
the machines. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained by experience following the in- 
structions issued by the superintendent. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Besides the requirements 
of the regular operators the foreman must have mechanical and 
executive ability. 

The Knitting Machine Operator 

Machines used. — The knitting machines are about eight feet 
in height. They consist of three units; the bobbin holders, the 
cylinder weaving the threads, and the winding reels. Racks on 
the floor hold the bobbins, the number of which depend upon the 
yarn used and the quality of fabric desired. Some machines 
carry as many as 2,100 needles, each of which fits into its own 
socket. A thread from the bobbin is threaded through various 
holes around a tension into a guide. The thread is then pushed, 
by the notched wings of the guide on revolving wheels, under 
the beards of the needles. The machines used in Richmond 
carry two sets of needles which alternately operate to make the 
stitch. The entire cylinder revolves at high speed, and as each 
needle comes under the stationary press the needle beard is pushed 
in so that its point enters a depression, and immediately the 
alternate needle begins to operate. The new stitch is pulled 
through the old like a slip noose after the press has operated to hold 
the needle beard down. One set of needles operate at once. As 
the tubing is woven it is slowly drawn up from the cylinder by 
two rollers between which it is flattened and finally wound on a 
third roller at the top. There are two kinds of machines used, 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 205 

both of the spring needle, cn-cular type, differing in size accord- 
ing to the size of tubing knit. The one described makes a medium 
or heavy variety. The other machine with a single set of needles 
makes gauze or summer underwear of a very fine variety. 

What the worker does. — For this operation only boys are em- 
ployed, not because girls could not do the work, but because boys 
are available. The worker threads the machine and starts it, 
after filling it with the proper bobbins selected according to written 
orders from the foreman. If a needle breaks, the machine stops; 
and, although the position of the cylinder at stopping indicates 
in which section the trouble is, the operator must locate the exact 
needle and replace it with a new one. He must tie threads in a 
weaver's knot when they break. Through the entire process he 
observes the web and endeavors to so adjust his machine as to 
produce perfect work. If anything serious is the matter with the 
machine he calls the foreman. When a roll is finished he detaches 
it from the machine and replaces it with an empty roll. He oils 
and cleans the machine at regular intervals. 

Special knowledge required. — The knitting machine operator 
must know the factory system, where to place finished rolls and 
how to report completed work. He must know how to thread the 
machine, how to oil it and clean it, how to replace broken needles, 
how to tie the thread and how to tell when the machine is running 
correctly. He must be able to distinguish perfect from imperfect 
fabric and know what causes imperfections. Highest efficiency in 
operating depends upon the acquisition of some mechanical knowl- 
edge. 

Special skill required. — Skill consists in tying threads, making 
minor machine adjustments and replacing broken needles. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — That special 
knowledge and skill may be obtained on the job is proved by the 
fact that the manager has employed boys without any training 
whatever, previously employed in grocery, or drug stores. Specific 
instruction is given by the foreman. It takes about three weeks 
to teach a boy how to operate a machine and six months for him 
to become an expert. 

Mental and physical requirements. — No special strength is 
required except in removing the rolls. Mechanical ability is not 
absolutely required but is an asset for promotion. 



206 Occupational Information [Part II 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The workers stand or 
move about their work. Machines are not dangerous if the opera- 
tor understands how to stop them. There are no special mental 
or physical strains. 

Wages. — The weekly wage is twelve dollars with a bonus for 
good work. 

The Marking and Cutting Department Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman may do any of the work 
of the marking and cutting department. He teaches new workers 
and directs the work of the whole department and makes a report of 
output. 

Special knowledge required. — Besides the knowledge required 
of the regular workers, he should know how to route the work 
and direct workers. He must know the factory system thoroughly. 
He should also be able to estimate the ability of the workers under 
him. 

Special skill required. — No skill is required beyond that for the 
workers in the department. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained by previous experience in the 
department or by instructions from the superintendent. 

The Marker 

What the worker does. — The marker indicates on the cloth, 
the outline of the pattern and where cuts are to be made. In 
the workingmen's wear industry the marker is a man whose work 
is as follows: Before actually marking the pattern on the cloth, 
he calculates, on the basis of the original order, the width of 
cloth needed, the number of yards and the length of the spreads. 
Bolts come in varying widths and lengths. He lays the stiff card- 
board pattern on the cloth and marks around it with a pencil. 
He must use a light pencil for dark goods, and a dark pencil for light 
goods. He marks out each garment and all its accessories, includ- 
ing facings, bands, etc., in the same section of cloth and marks on 
each piece the size of the garment. 

Marking for the underwear industry is different because the 
marker has to inspect the weave for the defects and so can mark 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 207 

only one piece of the pattern at once. The work, which is per- 
formed by a woman, is as follows: The worker has before her the 
pattern and knows what length of cloth it will take. She makes 
a pile of about two dozen thicknesses of cloth of the required 
widths which she has cut to the right length for the pattern. 
Before laying each thickness she holds it up to the light to see 
that there is no defect in the weave. If there is she must reject 
the piece altogether or so plan the cuts that the defect will come 
in a place which is to be cut out of the finished garments, such 
as at the ankles or cuffs or under the arms. Then she lays the 
pattern on top of the pile and marks around it with a pencil. 

Special knowledge required. — The essence of this job is to lay 
the pattern on the cloth economically so there will be as little waste 
as possible. The worker must know thoroughly all the patterns 
used, which amount to at least a half dozen different styles and as 
many different sizes for each style. She must know how the cloth 
is to be cut for each piece of the pattern, whether it is crosswise, 
lengthwise or bias. 

The marker for the workingmen's wear factory must, in addi- 
tion, know how to calculate the cloth needed by the spreader and 
the widths and lengths available for each kind of fabric. He should 
know how to mark the pattern so as to match stripes or checks. 
He may suggest to the pattern maker more economical ways of 
designing the pattern. 

The marker in the underwear factory must be able to recog- 
nize defects in the weave. 

Special skill required. — No skill is required beyond reasonable 
speed and accuracy in handling the pattern. The knitted fabric 
is stretchy and harder to handle than ordinary cloth. It must be 
laid smooth with edges even. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill can be obtained on the job. Knowledge of the shape 
of the pattern may be gained by previous experience as a cutter, 
in the case of the man; or, at sewing at home, in the case of the 
woman. It takes several months to become a good marker for 
workingmen's wear and less time to learn the work of marking 
underwear. 

Mental and physical requirements. — This worker should have a 
definite sense of form which will enable him to imagine the out- 
line of the pattern within the dimensions of the cloth without 



208 Occupational Information [Part II 

actually so placing it. This requires a person whose imagery is of 
the visual type. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The workers stand 
at a table and are obliged to bend over almost constantly. 

Wages. — Wages for men cutters in the workingmen's wear 
factory are eighteen dollars per week. For the women in the un- 
derwear factory the wages are on a piece rate basis and earnings 
vary from eight to fifteen dollars a week. 

The Spreader 

What the worker does. — This worker spreads the cloth for the 
cutter on a table about thirty feet long. He takes a bolt of cloth, 
cuts the threads, loosens the bolt and arranges it on a small truck 
or carrier which moves above the table on a track. There is a 
rack on one end of the truck over which the cloth runs, as the carrier 
moves over the table. First the spreader fastens the cloth at 
one end of the table by weights, moves the carrier down to the 
other end again, fastens the cloth and moves the carrier back. 
This operation is repeated until there are the required number 
of thicknesses of cloth on the table. 

In the glove industry the spreader first lays the cloth in thirty- 
six thicknesses, then slides the whole pile over on to the table 
immediately in front of the cutting machine. 

In the workingmen's wear industry the spreader gets from 
stock the amount of cloth indicated by the marker. First he marks 
with chalk the length of each piece of the garment on the side of 
the table, in order to know when he comes to the end of the bolt 
how much the end of the next bolt must overlap, so that no gaps 
will be left in the pattern. He matches colors in starting a new 
bolt; a different color cannot be started in the middle of a spread. 
Shirts are laid in two dozen lots, 72 thick. Overalls, jackets and 
combination overalls are bundled one dozen in a lot. They are 
usually laid 96 thick. The spreader has to arrange the cloth so 
that the girl who bundles it can easily select the lots. To do this 
he either changes the color of the cloth when one lot is com- 
pleted, or spreads a length of paper between lots. The paper 
us3d is about one-half the width of the cloth. He must lay it so 
that each part of the pattern will have a thickness of the paper 
between lots. 

Special knowledge required.— Th.^ worker must know how to 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 209 

lay the cloth evenly. In spreading workingmen's wear, the worker 
must know how to mark the lengths of the patterns on the table 
and how to fit the ends of the bolts together accordingly. 

Special skill required. — The skill required for this work consists 
in handling the cloth easily, keeping it smooth with edges even 
and performing the whole operation with reasonable speed. 

How special knoivledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill can be obtained on the job in a few weeks by instruc- 
tions from the foreman. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The worker must have at 
least ordinary strength to lift the bolts of cloth. The work is 
considered too heavy for women. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Workers walk around 
a good deal so there is not the physical strain of monotony. They 
have to bend over the table and reach to the other side of it. 

Wages. — Wages are about twelve dollars a week. 

The Knife Cutter 

What the worker does. — The cutter cuts the stock along the lines 
indicated by the marker. The knives admit a spread of cloth 
about 3 inches thick. Two kinds of knives are used; the circular 
knife, and the perpendicular knife. Both are run by electric 
power, have a standard which slides under the cloth and are steered 
by a handle at the back. The circular knife is used for straight 
lines and the perpendicular for curves and notches. The cutter 
oils, cleans and makes minor repairs on the knife. This may 
involve taking it apart. He holds the cloth down with his left 
hand and guides the knife with his right. He must follow the 
marks exactly. The cutter for workingmen's wear assembles 
fronts and backs of shirts and jackets. The cutter for underwear 
puts pencil marks on the edge of some of the pieces as guides for 
the machine operators. After the cutting he bundles the pieces 
for the entire garment, two dozen in a bundle. He inserts in the 
bundle the tickets which are to filled in by each subsequent 
operator. The underwear cutter can cut only one pattern at once, 
while the cutter for the workingmen's wear cuts the whole spread 
at once, first going over it with the perpendicular knife, then with 
the circular knife. 

Special knowledge required. — The cutter must understand the 

14—5463 



210 Occupational Information [Part II 

operation and care of the machine. He must know which machine 
to use for each cut. He must know the best way of systematizing 
his work; for instance, in cutting a whole table he must go from 
left to right so that it will not be necessary to cross his left hand 
over the right in removing the pieces cut. For assembling, the 
worker should know all parts which go into one garment. He 
must know the order in which they are used by the sewing op- 
erator. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Forcing the knife through 
the cloth requires strength in arms and shoulders which women do 
not possess. The worker should have a sensitive touch and good 
co-ordination in order that he may feel bulging or slipping of the 
cloth under his left hand and react instantly to this sensation with 
his right hand which is guiding and pushing the knife. Accurate 
muscular control is necessary to keep the knife on the line. With 
experience the operation becomes so far automatic and reflex as 
not to require a constant focus of attention. 

A knowledge of drafting patterns is an advantage so that he 
may know what lines must be followed exactly and on what lines 
he can have some leeway. For instance, in cutting the leg piece 
to an overall beside which is the piece for the band, it saves one 
cutting line to neglect the space between and cut only on the line 
for the band, leaving the extra material if any, in the leg piece. 

If the knife is not running correctly, the cutter should know 
how to detect it by the sound of the motor. This is possible only 
after considerable experience. 

Special skill required. — The skill required consists in guiding 
the knife exactly on the marked line, in making repairs to cutters 
and sharpening knife blades. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special skill and 
knowledge can be obtained on the job in a month or so by instruc- 
tions from the foreman. It takes at least a year to become an 
expert cutter. 

Knowledge of drafting cannot be obtained on the job but must 
be learned in school or from a special teacher. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The knives are 
guarded but there is always some danger of cutting the fingers. 
The worker stands before a table. 

Wages. — Wages are about fifteen dollars a week. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 211 

The Leather Cutting Department Foreman 

What the worker does. — ^Each morning the foreman gives out 
the leather to the cutters and takes from each the work of the 
previous day. As he gives out leather to each one he indicates the 
die to be used. He keeps a record of the material given to each 
man and the work that each does. He analyzes this record to see 
that each cutter is getting as many gloves as he should from the 
material furnished him. 

He teaches new workers and oversees the work of the whole 
department. He also oversees the stock and shipping depart- 
ments. 

Special knowledge required. — Besides the requirements of the 
regular cutter he must know how to teach and direct the work. 
He must know how to pack goods and the general facts about 
shipping. He must know the kinds of gloves made and the kinds 
of stock required for each. 

Special skill required. — No skill is required beyond that of the 
regular cutter. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — By working as 
a cutter the special knowledge and skill may be obtained. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Besides the requirements 
of the regular cutter the foreman should have executive and 
teaching ability. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no hazards 
peculiar to this job. 

The Die Cutters 

What the leather die cutter does. — This worker cuts all the leather 
pieces used in glove making. He uses a power press whose head 
swings on a pivot over a cutting block. The dies used are metal 
pieces shaped to the outline of the glove pattern. They are 
about one inch high, a quarter of an inch thick at the top, tapering 
to a cutting edge at the bottom. The cutter takes the skin from 
the rack at his side, spreads it smoothly on a block, places the 
large die on the skin, swings the press over the die and pulls a lever 
which releases the power and causes the weight to be exerted on 
the die. Releasing the lever releases the weight. He swings the 
press back, picks up the cut piece and puts it on a pile of similar 



212 Occupational Information [Part II 

pieces on a shelf at the side. He piles them in pairs. When he 
has cut all the large size pieces possible he cuts from the corners 
the smaller thumb pieces using the appropriate dies. The scraps 
are pushed from the block into the scrap basket at his right. The 
cutter oils and cleans his own machines. He receives the leather 
by weight in the morning and turns in the work of the previous 
day to the foreman tied up in three dozen pair lots. 

What the tip die cutter does. — In order to utilize the many scraps 
from the regular leather cutter a style of gloves are devised which 
are tipped with leather across the fingers. Boys are employed to 
cut the finger tip pieces. The boy takes the scraps from the 
scrap basket beside him, smoothes out the pieces on which he places 
the die and cuts the leather by striking the top of the die with a 
hand mallet. He cuts three different sizes of finger tips, sorting 
them into a tray before him which has three divisions. 

What the cloth die cutter does. — This worker cuts all the material 
for the cloth gloves. He operates a power press with a head 
which moves up and down on vertical standards above the cut- 
ting block. Behind the press extends a long table on which the 
cloth is laid thirty-six layers thick. The cutter takes hold of the 
cloth, pulls it toward him so that it comes nearly to the edge of the 
cutting block. He then places the die on the cloth and holds it 
there while he presses a foot treadle which releases the power. 
The press then descends upon the die and forces it through the 
cloth. Releasing the foot treadle releases the die. When the pres- 
sure is released he pulls out the die and knocks out the pieces from 
the center and places them on a shelf in front of him, after 
which he cuts entirely across the end of the cloth then trims it 
roughly and pulls the cloth towards him. The waste pieces go into 
a crate at his side. Cutters oil and clean their own machines. 
For each cut the die must be placed so as to waste no material. 
Economizing cloth is the secret of the whole job. 

The head cutter has charge of the department and reports work 
done and material used. In some establishments the cutter also 
does the spreading described above. The cutter must know how 
his dies can be used to cut to the best advantage. For instance, 
the finger die is wide at one end and narrow at the other, to econo- 
mize cloth he turns the wide end toward him for one cut and away 
from him for the next cut. He must know how to operate and care 
for the machine and handle the cloth. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 213 

Special knoiiiedge required. — The most important thing in this 
whole job is to cut the leather economically and avoid defects. 
Each time the cutter places the die he must know how to place 
it to the best advantage and which die to use. The regular leather 
cutters must knoAV how to care for and operate the presses and 
how to report on work done. 

Special skill required. — -The skill on this job consists in placing 
the die quickly and accurately and in saving time between op- 
erations. The leather cutter must instantly plan the cutting of 
the whole piece when he first picks it up. The die must be placed 
accurately in cutting on the edge so as to cut exactly on the edge. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special 
knowledge and skill may be obtained on the job following the 
direction of the foreman. 

Mental and physical requirements. — In order to cut the leather 
economically the worker must have some sense of form and he 
must be able to recognize defects in the leather to avoid them. 
The requirements are the same as for the markers described 
above. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Workers stand at 
their work. There is practically no danger from the machines, 
since the space between the die and the press is too small to admit 
a man's fingers. The tip cutter is only in danger of hitting his 
own fingers with the mallet. 

Wages. — Regular cutters make from eleven to fifteen dollars 
per week. Tippers are boys making from five to six dollars a week. 

The Sewing Department Forewoman 

What the worker does. — The forewoman may do the work of any 
of the machine operators. She teaches new workers and directs 
the work of the whole department. In case the inspector fails to 
get the operator to correct a mistake the forewoman must see that 
it is done. She may shift workers from one operation to another 
according to the demands of the work or the ability or desire of 
the worker. She reports the total output of the department. 

Special knowledge required. — Besides the knowledge required 
for the sewing machine operator she must know how to teach the 
work, how to manage other workers and how to route the work 



214 Occupational Information [Paet II 

efficiently. The forewoman must know the factory system 
thoroughly in order to teach it and to trace mistakes to the 
operator responsible. She must judge workers in order to place 
them on the operation for which they are best suited. 

Special skill required. — The forewoman should be a skilled 
operator on any of the machines of the department. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill can be obtained by experience as an operator and 
by instructions from the superintendent. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Besides the requirements 
of the ordinary workers the forewoman should have teaching 
and executive ability. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The hazards are the 
same as for the regular operator. The strain involved is that 
incident to directing and managing people rather than machine 
operation. 

Wages. — Wages vary from twelve to eighteen dollars a week, 
according to size of establishment. The larger factories employ 
an assistant forewoman at eleven to fourteen dollars a week. 

Sewing Machine Operators 

What the underwear seaming operator does. — This operation 
consists of sewing up the entire garment. The machine used is 
a single-needle Union Special. The machine is equipped with 
a knife in place of a gauge which trims the edge of the seam. 
There is a device for cutting the thread at the end of each seam. 
The operator lays the two pieces which she wishes to sew right side 
together, the edges meeting exactly, and' guides them through the 
machine. She sews up the shoulder seams, stitches the under arm 
seams and finally the leg seams. This worker also sews the label 
on the inside of the garment in the middle of the back near the 
edge of the collar. 

What the underwear cuff seaming operator does. — This operation 
consists of covering the seams so that the weave will not ravel. 
This worker covers all the seams in the garment except the collar, 
the ankles and the cuffs. She takes one garment from the lot, 
turns it right side out, then guides each seam under the foot of the 
machine which puts the interlocking stitch over the seam on the 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 215 

wrong side. A two-needle machine with a cyhnder bed is used 
which permits the whole leg or sleeve of the garment to pass over it 
while being stitched. 

What the underivear collar operator does. — The collar consists 
of a narrow piece around the neck of the garment in which the 
web runs lengthwise instead of crosswise. The worker holds the 
garment right side up, and feeds it through a special two-needle 
machine which makes a special trimming stitch over the collar 
seam. 

What the underwear facing operator does. — In this operation 
the muslin facing is put on each side of the opening of the garment. 
The worker takes the facing piece, puts it wrong side up on the 
wrong side of the garment edges even, and stitches it. She then 
turns the facing piece back on the wrong side of the garment, 
stitches the seam again, and turns in the other side of the facing 
and stitches it down. The other facing is put on in the same way. 
The wider buttonhole facing is put on the right side of the opening, 
and the button facing on the left side. When both facings are on, 
she turns in the bottom and runs two stitchings across it. The 
machine is the ordinary single needle type. 

What the underwear cuff and ankle operator does. — This worker 
operates the Union Special three-needle machine which makes a 
lap stitch that sews and covers the seam at once. She places the 
end of the sleeve overlapping the upper edge of the cuff, both of 
which are right side up, and stitches them. This operation is 
repeated for the other sleeve and so on for the two dozen pairs. 
She then cuts the thread, and sews the ankle pieces on the bottom 
of the leg in the same manner. 

What the underwear collar crocheting operator does.— This worker 
guides the edge of the collar and the edge of the front opening 
into a two-needle machine which makes a special crocheting stitch 
over the edge. 

What the canvas glove operator does. — The glove comes in five 
pieces: The backs of the second, third and fourth fingers; the back 
of the thumb and a palm piece, which includes the whole first 
finger and the under side of the other fingers and thumb. The 
operator brings a stack of parts to her machine and places them 
on a rack at her side. She sews the entire glove except the knit 
wrists. 



216 Occupational Information [Part II 

First the operator sews the thumb on the pahn piece. This is 
done by placing the thumb piece over the palm piece, holding 
them even, right sides together, starting them under the foot of 
the machine and guiding the seam. There is a gauge on the 
machine which prevents the seam from being too wide but not 
from being too narrow. Without cutting the thread she runs in 
the next glove and so on through the three dozen pairs. She then 
cuts the thread between gloves with scissors. 

The next operation consists in sewing on the piece which 
forms the back of the second finger of the glove. The operator 
places the piece on the part of the palm which is to form the back 
of the first finger, right sides together, edges even, then runs them 
through the machine, after which she sews on the third finger. 
This finger is cut with one side higher than the other and must 
be placed on the glove so that the high side will come next to the 
second finger, otherwise the seam would be uneven at the bottom 
and would have to be ripped out. She next sews on the piece 
which forms the back of the little finger. The three dozen gloves 
are run through in this way and then cut. 

If a stiff cuff is needed the operator puts it on at this time. 
She slides the gauge back, takes the glove, right side up, and 
stretches it out fiat, laps the upper edge of the cuff over the lower 
edge of the glove and runs it through the machine. Both the glove 
and the cuff piece must be held so that the seam will be the right 
width. When three dozen pairs have been run through she cuts 
the gloves apart. 

The next operation consists of sewing up the fingers. The 
worker runs the gloves through, pair by pair, beginning at the 
top of the first finger in one glove sewing a continuous seam around 
each finger and down the outside to the bottom of each cuff. With 
the next glove, she begins at the bottoin of the cuff and finishes 
at the end of the first finger, after which she backstitches the 
bottom of each cuff. She runs through three dozen pairs in this 
way and then cuts the thread apart with the scissors. 

There is another style of glove in which the palm includes the 
little finger as well as the first finger. This varies the operation 
only by making one less finger piece to sew in and by doing away 
with the seam down the outside of the little finger. 

What the knit wrist glove operator does. — A machine with a 
circular bed is used. The operator sews the knit wrists on the 
glove, after which she trims the edges of the wrist, if necessary, 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 217 

places it inside the glove, so that the edges of the glove and wrist 
piece are even; then places the whole over the circular bed of the 
machine, guiding the glove as it goes around. This completes 
the process. 

What the cuff glove operator does. — The cuff machine operator 
makes all the cuffs for the gauntlet gloves. She runs each cuff 
through the machine which makes two stitchings down the 
center about one inch apart. The cuffs must be so run in that 
the ends fit closely together and no thread is wasted and only 
one cut of the shears will be necessary to cut them apart and trim 
the thread. Since the cuffs are cut in the shape of a truncated 
pja-amid, she has to turn over every alternate cuff. After run- 
ning them through she cuts the cuffs apart and puts them in piles 
of three dozen pairs each. The machine is so gauged that there 
is no necessity of guiding the cuffs after they are once started. 
It is a two-needle Union Special machine requiring four threads. 

What the trimming cuff glove operator does. — The operator 
runs the cuff through a machine which binds and trims the edge 
with red thread. She then takes a handful of cuffs from her lap, 
spreads them out fan shape in her hands and runs them through 
one by one without stopping the machine. When she has run 
through the lot, she stops and cuts the threads and runs them 
through again on the other edge. Young boys or girls may be 
employed to cut the threads. The machine used is a single- 
needle Union Special with gauge and walking foot, which holds 
the leather down. 

The first operation is to sew the leather onto the canvas lining. 
The operator lays the leather palm on the canvas palm with the 
right side of the canvas and the right side of the leather up. 
The edges of canvas and leather must fit exactly. She then 
stitches from the tip of the first finger to the thumb hole, then, 
without breaking the thread, arranges the leather thumb over the 
canvas thumb in the same way, thus stitching the leather to the 
cloth. She then sews the second thumb and the second palm, 
and so on, pair by pair, through the whole lot, after which she 
cuts the pieces apart. 

In the next operation she sews up the thumb and sews the lower 
part of it to the thumb hole of the glove. She then cuts the 
thread and sews the inner side of the thumb to the thumb hole 
of the glove. In this operation she must hold the right sides of the 



218 Occupational Information [Part II 

cloth together and see that the edges are evenly matched. She 
cuts the gloves apart and partly turns the thumb right side out, 
so that it is out of the way for the next operation. 

What the leather glove operator does: Sewing hacks. — Stock 
consists of the glove as it comes from the thumb operator, plus 
the three finger pieces, which this operator sews in. She begins 
with the second finger, lays in evenly, wrong side up, on the palm 
to the edge of the first finger and stitches it. She then stitches 
the third finger, then the second, then the little finger to the third 
finger. She must match the pieces evenly, place them so that 
the right sides of the cloth may be together and be sure that she 
sews the finger on in the proper position. If the glove is to have 
a stiff cuff, she sews on the cuff as previously described. This 
operator uses a Singer machine with an ordinary foot and gauge, 
except for the cuff seam. 

What the leather glove operator does: Closing. — The closing 
operation of leather gloves is the same as for canvas gloves. 

After the three dozen pairs are closed, she runs them through 
again to sew down the lining at the tip of the finger. On each 
finger shie must place the lining evenly over the leather and feed 
it through the machine. When the three dozen pairs are stitched, 
she cuts the thread between fingers and between the gloves and 
trims the seams. This is necessary because the leather may be 
stretched in sewing and extend so far over the cloth that the seams 
would be too bulky when turned. 

Machines used for this work are the one-needle Union Special 
with the circular foot. One of these operators has a machine 
near the cuff operators. Besides the regular work she supervises 
these workers and trains new ones. She receives an extra 
wage for this work. 

What the leather tip glove operator does. — Some of the canvas 
gloves are made with a leather tip on the end of each finger. To 
the left of the operator is a tray containing the three different sizes 
of leather tips. The operator sews a tip on each finger and 
thumb. She usually sews all the thumbs first, running one 
seam across the thumb at the bottom of the tip. Next she 
feeds through the three dozen pairs of gloves and cuts them apart. 
Beginning with the first finger she sews down the outside edge 
across the base of the tip. For the next two fingers she sews 
across the base only, and for the little finger, across the base and 
up the side. In one style of glove the httle finger is sewed down 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 219 

only at the base. She runs through the three dozen pairs in this 
way, after which she cuts the thread between the fingers and 
between the gloves. She must sew the tips on accurately, get 
the leather right side up and fit the right size tip to each finger. 
The machine used has a circular foot. 

What the palm patching glove operator does. — To utilize scraps 
of leather, some of the gloves are patched across the palm at the 
base of the fingers and the two pairs of fingers are patched together. 
The operator patches together the two pairs of fingers by laying 
them side by side with the bases of the second and third fingers 
overlapping enough for the seam and then stitching them. Other 
pairs of fingers are patched in the same manner. The double- 
needle machine with a roller foot is used. 

^Vhat the shirt hemming operator does. — The first operation in 
making a shirt is hemming the bottom and sewing in the gusset 
which goes to the bottom of the under-arm seam. The operator 
takes the piece for the gusset which is a square, folds it to a triangle, 
slips the edge of the shirt into the hemming adjustment on the 
machine and slips the edge of the gusset piece under the hem. 
One gusset must be sewed on the front piece of the shirt, another 
on the back piece. 

What the shirt facing operator does. — This operation consists 
of sewing the button and buttonhole facing to the front of the 
shirt and facing the slip in the sleeves. 

The buttonhole is sewed on first. The operator takes the 
top facing, adjusts it in the machine guide, which folds in both 
edges. The underneath facing is a plain white strip coming in a 
continuous roll. This is adjusted to a second feeder which also 
folds in both edges. 

The operator then inserts the front of the shirt, feeding it 
between the upper and lower facing next to a gauge. The machine 
makes two stitchings on each side of the facing. She feeds 
through the two dozen shirts consecutively, then cuts them apart 
and trims the bottom of the facings. It is important to leave 
practically no space between shirts because this means a waste 
of facing material. 

The buttonhole facing machine works in exactly the same 
way as the one described, except that it has onty two needles and 
makes only one stitching on each edge of the facing. The sleeve 
facings and placket are applied in the same way as the button- 



220 Occupational Information [Part II 

hole facings. The worker uses four different machines with 
fixed gauges and attachments. 

What the shirt pocket operator does. — The pocket operator 
makes the pocket, sews it to the shirt and also sews on the 
shirt yoke. The worker first sews the painted flap to the pocket 
piece feeding through the full two dozen. She then cuts them 
apart, turns the flap piece over on the right side of the pocket, 
stitches the same again on the right side and so through the two 
dozen pair. She sews another stitching about a quarter of an 
inch from this, after which she sews the point of the flap to the 
pocket. 

The next step is to sew the pocket to the shirt. Most shirts 
have only one pocket. In case there are two pockets, the places 
are marked. In case there is only one, she places the top of the 
pocket, on the line of the bottom of the armhole in the middle 
of the left side. If the material is striped, the pocket must be placed 
so that the stripes will match. She turns in one side of the pocket, 
starts the machine, sews to the bottom, turns the next edge and 
so on around. She then puts on another stitching about a quarter 
of an inch inside the first, cats the thread and proceeds to the 
next shirt. This worker also sews the tag to the inside of the 
yoke, showing lot number and size. She places the coupon on 
the yoke in the middle of the wrong side of the shirt, sev/s across 
each end and cuts the thread. 

The yoke is sewed straight across the shirt with no point or 
gathers. She takes the two yoke pieces, wrong side together, 
starts them in the machine which turns in the edges, and feeds 
in the back of the shirt between the two yoke pieces. She feeds 
through the whole lot of shirts and cuts them apart. 

This operator also finishes the facing. She turns in the 
buttonhole facing, places it on the button facing and runs two 
stitchings across the bottom. 

TVhat the side wheel felling operator does. — In this operation 
the sleeve seam and the under-arm body seam are taken. The 
machine is constructed with an arm extending toward the oper- 
ator through which the sleeve and body of the shirt are placed. 
The seam is started at the wrist end of the sleeve and continues 
to the bottom of the under-arm seam where she includes the gusset 
piece. She slips the garment off the machine and cuts the thread, 
sews the other side, cuts the thread and starts the next shirt. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 221 

What the shirt cuff operator does. — This operator makes the 
cuffs as she sews them to the shirt. The machine used is an ordi- 
nary one-needle Singer machine. She places the cuff end of the 
sleeve wrong side up^ over the outside piece of the cuff right side 
up, edges even. She gathers the seam as she sews it to the cuff. 
She then turns the cuff back, sews on the under cuff piece and 
stitches the seam again. This time she stitches around the 
cuff, turning in the edges evenly. 

What the shirt collar operator does. — One of the most skilled 
operators sews on the collar. The collars used on most of the 
shirts have a band separating the collar from the shirt. The 
first step is to make the collar. The worker lays the two collar 
pieces together, wrong side out, sews around the three outer 
edges and then turns the collar right side out. Two rows of stitch- 
ing are run around the three edges. Each stitching is done for 
the whole lot at once. The worker must stop between each of the 
three operations to cut the threads. 

The next step is to sew the band to the shirt. The band is 
laid wrong side up on the right side of the shirt and the edges 
held even while the worker guides the seam through the machine. 
Both of these seams must be stitched very evenly and both band 
and collar placed evenly on the shirt. 

The next operation is to place the other piece of the band, 
right side up, to fit over the piece which has been sewed in. She 
turns in the edges and sews completely around the band. 

What the pants seaming operator does. — This operator sews the 
inside leg and seat seams of trousers with an ordinary single- 
needle machine. These are just plain seams. The front and 
back leg pieces are laid together, the wrong sides together, the 
edges held even and the seam stitched. 

What the pants finishing operator does. — ^This operator turns the 
band in and sews it down and sews on the belt and shoulder 
straps. 

What the pants hemming operator does. — After the seams have 
been pressed the pants legs are hemmed on a blind stitching 
machine. This makes a stitch which shows only on the wrong 
side. The worker turns back the pant leg, trims it, turns in 
the edges, places it over the machine body, and sews the seam. 

What the buttonhole operator does. — ^The buttonhole nearest 
the neck band is first sewed. Distance between buttonholes 



222 Occupational Information [Part II 

is determined by the gauge. The machine stitches the button- 
hole, cuts it, cuts the thread and stops automatically. Button- 
holing may be made on a Singer machine or a Reese three-needle 
machine, which carries an extra thread around the buttonhole 
to strengthen it. 

What the button sewing operator does. — The worker marks the 
places for the buttons by placing the buttonhole facing over 
the button facing and marking through the buttonholes with a 
pencil. She places a button in the groove of the special three-prong 
foot of the machine, then places the button facing under the 
foot with the mark directly under the button. She then starts 
the machine which automatically sews on the button, stops and 
cuts the thread. 

On pants the buttons are clamped on, not sewed. The opera- 
tor marks the places for the buttons, then places the garments 
over the bed of the machine with the mark directly under the 
plunger, presses a foot treadle and the machine clamps on the 
button. 

Machines used hy all operators. — The sewing room is arranged 
with sewing tables all of which have a number of machines 
mounted on each side. In general the same table is used by 
workers performing the same operation. Most of the machines 
used are the power Singer or Standard machines; each is especially 
adapted to the particular operation for which it is used. Machines 
are threaded very much as those used in the home. The two, 
three and four-needle machines are, of course, harder to thread 
than the one-needle machine. Like the domestic machine they 
have bobbins below and, in additoin, a bobbin winding device 
at the side which winds the bobbin while the machine is running 
and stops automatically when the bobbin is full. To replace a 
bobbin the worker removes the empty one from the carrier, sub- 
stitutes for it the full one from the spindle at her side, places it 
in the carrier and the carrier back in the machine. In case a 
needle breaks the worker removes it by loosening the screw in 
the presser foot, inserts the new one and tightens the screw. 
The Wilson Gibbs machines are operated in about the same way. 
The Union Special machines are threaded above and below. 
They have no bobbins. 

Machines are started by pressing the toe on a foot treadle. 
Pressing with the heel stops the machine. The worker raises 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 223 

the presser foot of the machine by pressing her knee sidewise 
against a lever. She cleans and oils her own machine, but calls 
the forewoman if any serious repairs are needed. 

Sources of stock. — Each operator gets her own material from 
stock and returns her work to some definite place. She may get 
it from a stock girl or there may be trucks at the end of each table 
with divisions for finished and unfinished work. 

Special knowledge required of all operators. — Every operator 
must know where to get her stock and where to return it. She 
must know what thread or threads to use on her machine; for in- 
stance, the double-needle glove cuff machine requires four threads 
each of a different kind. She must know where to oil the machine, 
how to clean and thread it and how to replace broken needles. 
She must be able to recognize any defect in the machine. She 
must arrange her work in her lap and' on the table and run it 
through the machine in such a way that waste movements are 
eliminated and accuracy and speed maintained. She must 
know enough about fabrics to recognize the right and wrong side 
of the goods; she must know how to rip seams quickly; for example, 
the Union Special machines sew a chain stitch on the wrong side 
which can be ripped quickly by pulling the right thread. 

The buttonhole operator must know which way of the goods 
the buttonholes should be made. Operators sewing on buttons 
must know how to mark the spaces between buttons and how to 
place buttons in the machine. The facing operators must know 
to which side of the opening each facing is applied. 

The glove operator should know how the whole glove is made. 
The leather operator should know where the leather pieces are 
attached. The back sewing operator should know the order in 
which the finger pieces are applied. 

The shirt felling operator should know how much to overlap 
each seam and how to adjust the cloth in the special attachment 
of the machine. The hemmer must know how wide the hem 
should be. 

Special skill required of all operators. — Skill in sewing machine 
operating in these three industries consists in quickly and accurate- 
ly assembling and arranging pieces which are to be sewed, in feed- 
ing these pieces into the machines, in guiding them properly, 
and in threading machines and making machine adjustments. 
The details of the general requirements are reported in the previous 
sections describing the routine of work of each operator. 



224 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
special knowledge and skill required of all sewing machine opera- 
tors may be obtained during the course of the work. It takes 
about six weeks to ^^make" an operator, that is for an operator 
to reach the desired standard of work and attain sufficient speed 
to make five dollars a week. It takes several months to ^^make" 
a really good operator. For the first two or three days the fore- 
woman spends considerable time with the new worker showing 
her how to adjust her machine and how to handle the materials. 
The forewoman can not train more than two or three girls at a 
time. 

In one mill, for the first week, new operators are not placed on 
machines, as they are not used to the factory atmosphere, and the 
noise and speed of the machines frightens them, and the machine 
might '^run away with them." 

Mental and physical requirements. — The operator should have 
a sense of form which will enable her to see how the garment 
pieces fit together. She must have sufficient accuracy and muscu- 
lar co-ordination to place the pieces exactly as needed the first 
time. She must react quickly in order to accomplish each opera- 
tion in the least possible time. As one employer expressed it, 
the ideal worker is ''speedy and neat." If unsatisfactory on one 
operation the worker is shifted to another place; for example, 
in glove manufacturing ''sloppy and speedy" workers are placed 
at back sewing where speed is necessary and where the gauged 
machine is used. "Speedy and neat" workers are placed at 
thumb sewing where accuracy and speed are both necessary. 
"Slow and neat" workers are placed at closing gloves, where 
accuracy is the prime essential. After a time all work becomes 
sufficiently automatic as not to require constant focus of atten- 
tion. 

Hazards and inherent character of the work of all machine 
operators. — All machine operators sit at their work. Workers 
on jackets and overalls handle heavy materials. All machines are 
guarded with skirt guards but there is some danger in getting the 
fingers under the needle. There is inevitable strain due to the 
necessity of constant bending over the machine and to the required 
speed due to the piece-work system. At some of the machines 
there is no provision for resting the arms while working; notably 
the buttonhole and side wheel sewing machines. There is prob- 
ably some strain in operating high speed machines but there 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 225 

can be no adequate discussion of such possible without scientific 
study to ascertain the basic facts. 

Wages of all machine operators. — The beginning wage is five 
or six dollars a week. Employers pay a higher beginning wage to 
out of town girls because their living expenses are higher. One em- 
ployer estimates that it costs the company eight dollars to train a 
worker, crediting her with the work she does on a piece basis. 
Wages for the regular operators average eight dollars. Some make 
fourteen dollars a week; a very few seventeen to eighteen dollars 
on exceptional weeks. In the workingmen's wear industry the 
skilled workers on collars and felling receive two dollars a day. 

The Inspector 

What the worker does. — The inspector receives the bundles as 
they come from the last sewing operator, opens them and inspects 
each garment carefully. Defective garments due to sewing 
operations are returned to the operator who is responsible; or, in 
some factories, to the forewoman of the sewing department. 

In the underwear industry the inspector snips threads left 
at the ends of the seams, and mends defects due to imperfections 
in the web. Inspectors of the leather lined gloves, pair the gloves 
and place them on the rack to be packed. Inspectors of canvas 
gloves may also do forming. In the workingmen's wear industry 
the inspector folds the garments and cuts threads. 

Special knowledge required. — The inspector must know the 
standard for each kind of garment. She must recognize defects 
in the garment, and know whether they are due to the weaving 
or sewing processes. She must know the organization of the 
sewing department in order to turn back defective work to the 
operator responsible. Inspectors in the workingmen's wear 
factory should know how to fold each type of garment. 

Special skill required. — Skill in this work pertains largely to 
speedy and accurate reactions. Threads must be cut rapidly 
and close to the cloth without injuring the fabric. Garments 
must be folded rapidly and neatly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill can be obtained on the job by following the fore- 
man's instructions. This is frequently the beginning position 
for newly recruited workers. 

15—5463 



226 Occupational Information [Part II 

Hazards and inherent character of the work. — This worker sits 
at her work. In two industries there is some floating Knt in the 
air. 

Wages. — Earnings vary from six to ten, dollars and a half per 
week except, for the younger workers in the glove industry who 
receive from five to six dollars a week. 

The Presser 

For an analysis of the work of the pressers see Chapter XIV, 
''Dry Cleaning." The steam press and electric iron are both 
used in these industries. 

The Folder 

What the worker does. ^The folder measures and folds each 
garment preparatory to boxing. The folding table is graduated 
to show the exact proportions required for each size garment. 
The folder lays each garment on the table, measuring it to see 
that the size with which it is labeled is correct, after which she 
folds it. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must understand the 
gauge which is used to measure the garment. She must know 
the correct way of folding every kind of garment handled. 

Special skill required. — Skill consists only in doing work with 
a fair degree of speed. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained on the job by experience and by 
instruction from the foreman. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The folder does her 
work standing before a table. There is no special strain. 

Wages. — Wages are on a piece basis and earnings vary from 
ten to fifteen dollars a week. 

The Turner 

What the worker does. — The turner turns gloves right side out. 
This work is usually done by boys or girls, between the ages of 
fourteen and sixteen years. The machine used consists of four 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 227 

tube like fingers set vertically in a table and a four-pronged bar 
which is so pivoted that pressure of a foot treadle brings the 
prongs of the bar down into the tubes. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must know how to 
operate the simple turning machine. 

Special skill required. Skill consists only in performing the 
whole operation with reasonable speed. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — In one day's 
time the necessary knowledge and skill may be obtained. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Workers stand at 
their work. There is practically no danger from the machines 
because they are operated by foot treadles. 

Wages. — Girls turning leather gloves receive from five to eight 
dollars per week. Girls and boys turning canvas gloves are paid 
at the rate of one cent a dozen and earn from fifty cents to five 
dollars a week. Of the latter sum, one employer said, ^' These 
kiddies have to work pretty hard to make that." 

The Former 

What the worker does.— The former shapes the glove by pressing 
out the seams. The glove is placed over a steam heated metal 
form, shaped like a hand, but with no thumb, over which the 
glove fingers are placed. Another steam heated rod is used for 
forming the thumbs. The former places the thumb over the 
thumb form, pulls it down and presses the seam with his fingers. 
Then he places the fingers of the glove over the finger form and 
smooths down the seams. Boys do the leather glove forming and 
girls the canvas glove forming. 

Special knowledge required. — -This job requires skill rather 
than knowledge. 

Special skill required. — Skill consists in placing the fingers 
over the steam heated forms, and in speedily smoothing the 
seam. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — A youth with 
ordinarj^ intelligence may become proficient at this job in one dsiy. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The worker stands 
at this work. The form over which the glove is placed is hot, 



228 Occupational Information [Part II 

although it would not burn the worker's fingers with a slight 
touch. There is some strain connected with the work because 
the worker has to exert force on the seams to flatten them out. 

T^a^es.— Boys on the leather work receive from six to eight 
dollars a week; girls from five to eight dollars a week. 

The Glove Stock Girl 

What the worker does. — The stock girl gives out stock to the 
sewing machine operators. She works behind a long counter, 
under which are bins for the various glove parts. Thread stock 
is kept in cases. Finger prices are taken directly from the rack 
behind the die cutters. The stock girl, upon issuing material, 
punches the operator's card in the appropriate place, or retains 
one of the worker's coupons upon which she marks the worker's 
number. 

Special knowledge required. — The stock girl must know the 
exact pieces and kinds of materials going into each kind of glove 
manufactured. She must recognize each operator at once, 
know the exact machine upon which she works and the exact 
stock she requires. 

She must know what thread is used in each operation and 
for what machine the thread is desired; for example, in the cuff 
machine, four different threads are used in the same operation, 
thus she must know at once just what thread the operator ought 
to have for a particular part of the work. She should know piece 
rates in order to punch right columns on the operator's card in 
recording the stock given to the operator. 

Special skill required. — No special skill is required, except the 
handling of material quickly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are obtained only during the course of the work 
by following the instructions from the foreman of the sewing 
department. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — No special strains 
or hazards are incident to this work. 

The Packer 

What the worker does. — Packers count garments and tie them 
together into bundles, or pack garments in boxes. In the glove 
industry the packers, who are youths, erect the folded boxes, 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 229 

pair the gloves and place one dozen pairs in each box. In the 
working-men's wear industry the packer, aside from counting and 
^tieing up the garments in neat bundles of a dozen each, is re- 
sponsible for all materials used in the facory. 

Special knowledge required. — Glove packers should know how to 
pair the gloves and fold boxes. The packer in the workingmen's 
wear factory must know how to keep track of stock and out- 
put. 

Special skill required. — Skill consists in packing neatly and 
quickly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained.- — Necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained by following the foreman's 
instructions. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no special 
strains or conditions tending to injure the health of workers. 

Wages. — Wages vary from twelve dollars a week for the re- 
sponsible workers, to five or six dollars for the youth who are the 
boxers. 

The Bundler 

What the worker does. — The bundler follows the cutter and 
assembles the pieces belonging to each kind and size of garment 
in dozen or two dozen lots. The worker must bundle together only 
those pieces which have been marked for the same size of garment, 
since garments of different sizes are usually cut in the same strip. 
She ties together the different pieces of a kind and then all the 
bundles of pieces going into the same lot of garments. Bundle 
units must be so arranged that each may be taken by the machine 
operator in the sequential order of machine operating; for in- 
stance-, the backs and fronts of the shirts are the first sewed to- 
gether, therefore these parts must be at the top of the bundle. 
The trimming pieces, such as cuffs and collars, are sewed last, 
therefore these units must be at the bottom of the bundle. 

Special knowledge required.— The bundler should know thorough- 
ly the shape of every part of every pattern used and should have 
a knowledge of the sewing process which will enable her to make 
up the bundle correctly. She must know the system of coupons 
so as to select the correct sizes and lot numbers for each bundle. 



230 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special skill required. — The bundles must be tied up quickly 
and firmly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. ^A "bright girl" 
obtains the necessary knowledge and skill in from two to three 
weeks actual employment. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The worker stands 
at her work and walks from one end of the table to the other. 
Some bundles are very heavy, notably the bundles for combina- 
tions and overalls. 

Wages.— T\vQ bundler earns nine dollars a week. 

The Labeler 

What the worker does. — The labeler marks the labels which 
are sewed into the garments and the coupons which follow the 
sewing processes. The lot number is printed in a small hand press. 
The labeler sets the type, and operates the press by means of. a 
small crank. The size and amount are stamped on by hand with 
a rubber stamp. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must know how to use 
the machine for stamping the lot numbers. This involves 
selecting and placing the type in the press and feeding the cards 
in the press. She must know how to use a rubber stamp and must 
know how to route the work effectively. 

Special skill required. — The skill consists in doing the work 
rapidly and accurately, and stamping each figure and letter in 
the correct space. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
knowledge and skill may be obtained in three weeks time. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no hazards 
of any kind. 

Wages. — The weekly wage is nine dollars. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The majority of the workers in these three industries are 
female power sewing machine operators. Power machine sewing 
can be taught successfully in schools, but it is doubtful if the 
type of operating required in Richmond can be taught better in 
the schools than in the shops. 



Chap. XII] Workingmen's Wear 231 

The knowledge and skill necessary for markers, spreaders 
and cutters may be obtained on the job during the process of the 
work. Young men employed as knitting machine operators 
might become special machinists for the knitting mill industry 
b}^ taking advantage of the evening school course for machinists. 
The Committee urges those in charge of the night school to in- 
dicate this possibility to these young men. 



CHAPTER XIII 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: LADIES TAILOR- 
ING, DRESSMAKING AND GENERAL 
SEWING 

The great increase in the use of ready-made garments has 
lessened to a considerable extent the demand for tailoring, dress- 
making, and general sewing. The dressmakers and seamstresses 
in Richmond, however, report they can get all the work they de- 
sire; moreover, housewives state that it is almost impossible to 
employ seamstresses when they want them. These facts indicate 
that the fields of dressmaking and general sewing are not over- 
crowded in Richmond. The great majority of Richmond dress- 
makers work in their own homes or the homes of their employers. 
Only four of those reporting have down town shops. 

Scope of the study. — The occupations involved in the making of 
women's outer garments are highly standardized, in comparison 
with many other fields of employment. The Survey, therefore, 
reports only those facts required by the General Committee 
necessary in making educational recommendations. For a re- 
liable description and analysis of the various processes and occupa- 
tions the reader is referred to ''The Report of the Minneapolis 
Survey for Vocational Education," pages 407 to 425. This 
study includes an analysis of the ladies' tailor and dressmaker, 
the seamstress and brief descriptions of the work of the waist 
maker, the skirt maker, the sleeve maker and general shop 
workers. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

The Survey received reports from the seventeen ladies' tailors 
and dressmakers employing five male and thirty-six female work- 
ers. Of this number, twenty-two of the workers were employed 
in the five regular shops of Richmond, which required four waist 
makers, six skirt makers, one waist and skirt maker, one draper, 
five helpers and one part-time worker. 

The city directory for 1916 lists twenty-eight general dress- 
makers aside from those owning or employed in establishments. 

(233) 



234 Occupational Information [Part II 

This figure being obviously incorrect, a questionaire was sent out 
through the pubhc school children of the city, inquiring the name 
and address of dressmakers and seamstresses employed by the 
housewife. The names of ninety-five dressmakers and seam- 
stresses were thus obtained. At least fifty more should be added 
to include those who have no children or whose children attend 
the parochial schools. 

Males Females 

Dressmakers and seamstresses . . 145 

Shop proprietors 2 15 

Waist makers 4 

Skirt makers 6 

Sleeve makers 3 

General workers ' . . 2 1 

Drapers 1 

Cutters and fitters 1 

Helpers (part-time) 1 6 

Total 6 181 

Facts Common to All Workers 

General education required. — Employers and employees should 
have at least an elementary school education and be able to read, 
and write in English. They should also be familiar with rudi- 
mentary arithmetic. Proprietors should be able to keep ac- 
counts, figure proportions, and fractions and have knowledge of 
trade magazine, terms and forms of bills, receipts, etc. All should 
have the general knowledge of garment construction, design and 
textiles gained from public school sewing and art courses. 

Source and selection of workers. — The proprietors have usually 
been helpers or other workers in the field and later gone in busi- 
ness for themselves. The employees are obtained by advertising 
or direct application. The apprentice system has gone out of 
use and the knowledge of sewing made prerequisite to employ- 
ment. The proprietor interviews all applicants. 

Working hours. — Most of the dressmakers interviewed work 
ten hours a day, from seven or eight a. m., to five or six p. m. 
Two work nine and one-half hours, one works ten and one-half 
hours, and three work eleven hours. Four shorten the working 
day one hour on Saturday and one makes it three hours longer. 



Chap. XIII] Ladies' Tailoring 235 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — The seasonal variation in the 
work of a high grade dressmaker or tailor is very pronounced, 
the busiest season being from March to July or August and from 
September to December. Generally extra workers are employed 
during these seasons. No overtime is expected of the employees 
but the proprietor may have to finish a garment after regular 
working hours. Home dressmakers and seamstresses are steadily 
employed throughout the year. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Invariably the work- 
ing conditions are good, owing to the high grade of work done and 
the class of patrons worked for. In the cases where the shops 
are in the home of the proprietor the parlors are used for fitting 
and other well lighted rooms for sewing. The shops are generally 
on the second floor and well lighted and ventilated. There 
are no hazards inherent to the work. 

Promotion. — In the strict sense of the word there is no pro- 
motion in Richmond dressmaking and tailoring shops. A 
seamstress stated that she was unable to obtain in the shop in 
which she worked the experience necessary to promotion. Two 
or three proprietors stated that an occasional raise in wages was 
offered to the skilled workers. The only definite advancement 
is in becoming a proprietor. The independent dressmaker by 
increased efficiency may enlarge the volume of her business, 
raise her prices, and choose her customers. 

Earnings. — The high grade dressmaker is said to earn about 
$75.00 per month; some report earning but $50.00 per month, 
while others report $125.00. Many home dressmakers, however, 
keep no account of their earnings. Seamstresses earn from $1.75 
to $2.00 a day. Men in the tailoring shops report receiving 
$25. 00, per week, and in the dressmaking shops from $6.00 to 
$12.00 a week. Apprentices, or correctly stating, helpers, are 
required to work from four to six months for nothing, and then 
from fifty cents to $2.00 a week until they become proficient 
workers. 

The Dressmaker 

What the worker does. — The majority of the dressmakers of 
Richmond make all kinds of women's and children's garments. 
A limited number specialize in tailoring but the majority do no 
tailoring whatever. Three Richmond dressmakers do designing 



236 Occupational Ir.roRMATioN [Part II 

while the great majority adapt ready m:i'/.o ratterns. Five do 
some shopping for customers, seven speciahz:^ i:i remodeUng, one 
in making fm's and two do some milUnery w^ork- 

After selecting the commercial pattern, nece.^-ary adaptations 
are made usually involving the putting in of tu^k?, pleats, and 
sheers, and other provisions for fullness before cutting The work- 
er pins the pattern on the cloth and cuts it with shears. 

Draping consists of placing the cloth on the fitted lining ac- 
cording to the design. The worker must put it on evenly, being 
sure that the lines are right and that the weave of the cloth is 
running in the proper direction. Fitting consists of putting the 
partially completed garment on the customer and making neces- 
sary alterations. Shoulder and under-arm seams, if not exactly 
right are pinned to fit. The hem of the sleeve must be turned 
back the right width and the belt fitted. The skirt length 
must be determined, and the skirt fitted and hemmed so that it 
hangs even from the fioor all around. 

In shopping, the dressmaker buys cloth according to order, 
matches fabrics, colors and thread, and selects linings and trim- 
mings. In this connection she must always be on the lookout 
for new ideas, and new fabrics, and trimmings. 

In remodeling, the worker must plan the garment to fit the 
cloth, rip and press the old garment, and cut and fit according to 
the new design. 

Dressmakers who manage their own business have to meet 
customers, advise them about designs and materials, keep ac- 
counts, render bills, and direct and teach their assistants. 

Special knowledge required. — The dressmaker should have a 
thorough knowledge of textiles and what fabrics are in vogue. 
She should know how to draft patterns, and how to adapt 
commercial patterns. To really succeed in her business, the dress- 
maker should be able to design costumes. This involves a knowl- 
edge of good lines, color combinations and style, and adaptation 
of the whole design to the customer and the fabric to be used. 

Cutting requires a knowledge of how the cloth of a given width 
and length will cut to the best advantage, and which way of the 
weave each piece is to be cut. 

Draping requires a special knowledge of how each kind of fabric 
can be used to the best advantage to get the desired effect. Sev- 
eral different fabrics may be combined in the garment and she 
must know how to get simple and effective lines no matter what 
materials are used. 



Chap. XIII] Ladies' Tailoring 237 

Fitting involves a knowledge cf how to alter seams and manip- 
ulate the cloth so as to make the garment fit. The worker must 
know how much fullness there should be, where the fullness should 
come and how to fold or gather the cloth into shoulder seam and 
band to obtain the desired effect. She should know what to do 
to make the needed change, what can be done by lifting or shift- 
ing shoulder seams, what by taking in the under-arm seam either 
on back, front, or both sides, and how the ''hang" of the skirt is 
effected by letting out a side seam or taking in more cloth on the 
back or front. She should know where the sleeve seam should 
meet the waist and how to shift it to make the sleeve fit. 

Shopping involves not only a knowledge of textiles but of 
prices. The shopper must know how to match colors. This 
is more difficult when different textiles are employed, for example, 
silk linings for wool suits. She must also be familiar with the 
local stores. 

Dressmakers should have a complete enough business educa- 
tion to enable them to properly meet customers, keep accounts, 
render and collect bills and select and train workers. . Salesman- 
ship training would be of distinct advantage. 

Special skill required. — Skill consists largely of handling 
fabrics and in the sewing, fitting, and draping of garments. This 
must be clone so that the pieces will be placed neath^ and ac- 
curately and so they are not mussed or soiled in the process. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The tech- 
nique of machine and hand sewing may be obtained during the 
course of the work. Helpers receive but little actual instruction 
in any phase of the work. It is therefore necessary that informa- 
tion about textiles, design, colors, line and form, and cutting and 
fitting, be obtained, by those wishing to become dressmakers, 
from school courses taken prior to entering the work or in the even- 
ing school after finding employment. 

The Seamstress 

What the worker does. — Shop and home seamstresses are found 
in Richmond. The home seamstress works by the da}^ in either 
her own home or that of her employer. Her work may include 
shopping, designing, cutting, fitting, sewing, and finishing, but it 
is limited largely to plain sewing; aprons, housedresses, plain 



238 Occupational Information [Part II 

shirt waists, underwear, and in some cases children's clothes. 
When the seamstress is employed, the housewife usually does 
the designing, shopping, and supervising of the work. 

Special knowledge required. — The seamstress requires the same 
type of special knowledge as the dressmaker but lesser in degree. 

Special skill required. — The seamstress must possess the same 
type of skill as the dressmaker, but as a rule the textiles used are 
easier to handle, and the fitting is not so exacting. The worker, 
however, must be neat and accurate. 

How special knowledge and skill may he obtained. — By working 
as a helper in a dressmaking establishment many seamstresses 
have learned the rudimentary technique of garment construc- 
tion. Information about design, color and textiles cannot be 
obtained in this manner, but requires school courses. All desir- 
ing to become seamstresses should pursue the courses — sewing, 
designing and garment construction offered in the public schools. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The Survey Committee recommends the establishment of trade 
extension evening school courses for ladies' tailors, dressmakers 
and seamstresses. 

For the girls who wish to enter these lines of work, the Com- 
mittee recommends trade preparatory courses sufficiently broad 
in scope to include the general work required of dressmakers and 
seamstresses in Richmond. 



CHAPTER XIV 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: DRY CLEANING, 
DYEING AND HAT CLEANING 

Originating as far back as 1857, in a lovers' quarrel, when a 
bottle of camphene was spilled on a silk gown, the dry cleaning 
business has passed through the successive stages of mystery, 
secret processes and sale of recipe, to the present attitude of 
scientific research. Its further development depends very 
largely upon the scientific perfection of the known chemical 
processes and the discovery of new processes to meet the new 
demands. At present cleaners are looking for a combination of 
chemicals which will preserve the color and sizing in a cloth, 
as in the gasoline bath process, and remove the dirt as in the soap 
and water process. That such a combination of chemicals is 
greatly needed, has been shown by the high prices still being paid 
by the tradesmen for new recipes and chemical combinations. 

With the recent introduction of new textiles and new dyeing 
processes, the cleaner has been forced to meet the demands of 
his clientele with new methods of his own invention. He is 
facing the increasing need for new types of tests to determine the 
kind and quality of fibre used in the different cloths, the methods 
of dyeing, and other possible chemical processes to which the 
cloth has been subjected. It is necessary, for instance, that he 
be able to recognize silks that have been "loaded" with a tin 
solution and, therefore, cannot be put into certain liquid baths 
without falling to pieces. Having determined the quality of fibre 
and chemical processes through which it has passed, there remains 
the constantly new problem of determining how to remove the 
dirt and unusual spots in the cloth of different textures. 

Difficulties. — Of the most serious difficulties which the 
average cleaner has to meet, that of the ignorance of his patrons 
in regard to textiles and chemical reactions is by far the most 
frequent. Housewives bring their unsuccessful attempts to him 
and expect him to be able to repair the double damage done the 
cloth. Their judgment regarding the possibility of cleansing a 

(239) 



240 Occupational Information [Part II 




Washing Machines, Extractor and Gasoline Pump. 




A Modern Steam Press. 



Chap. XIV] Dry Cleaning and Dyeing 



241 



given garment is frequently a real hindrance to the cleaner. Their 
ignorance of the quality and type of texture to be cleaned, arid 
the reactions of chemicals upon it, make it necessary for the work- 
man not only to recognize the conditions himself, but to be able 
to explain in detail to his patrons the action of the chemicals 
involved and the possible results to the cloth. 

On the other hand, the public, due to its ignorance, must 
accept wholly on faith the statements of the cleaner, and it is 
upon this faith in the individual cleaner that the success of the 
business is based. Successful work brings patrons, but one of 
the most frequent methods of gaining the confidence of the public 
is that of cleaning gloves at a loss in order to acquire public at- 
tention. 




Dry Cleaning Must Be Carried on in a Fire Proof Building as Illustrated by 
the Above Concrete Structure. 

The difficulties arising from shoddy fabrics and poor dyes 
have been multiplied many fold by the war conditions. The 
excellence of foreign fabrics have given place to shoddy, short- 
stapled materials, or mixtures which confuse even the wide awake 
cleaner and render uncertain the reaction of any given chemical 
upon it. The clear uniform dyes of Europe have been supplanted 
by inferior American-made dyes, which render uncertain the 

16 — 5463 



242 Occupational Information [Part II 

rpaction of any chemical upon the color of a fabric. Added to 
these uncertainties are the possibilities of ''loaded" materials, 
and new materials with which the cleaner has not yet had a suffi- 
cient experience to enable him to correctly' judge their possi- 
bilities. 

Another serious difficulty with which the cleaner must deal 
lies within the trade itself and arises from the inferior workman- 
ship of a great number of pseudo cleaners who pose as dry cleaners 
but who do only pressing and spotting. A creditable dry cleaner 
must face the problem of establishing a thoroughly good reputa- 
tion not only among the people of his own community, but among 
his fellow tradesmen of other communities so that they will send 
their difficult problems to him and refer other friends to his estab- 
lishment. 

Scope. — In Richmond the dry cleaning business as now con- 
stituted is less than fifteen years old and employs 36 persons. 
The local scope of the business includes the cleaning of suits, 
coats, waists, fine dresses, gloves, shoes and furs for ladies; suits, 
overcoats, isbucy vests, etc., for men, and in addition such house 
furnishings as rugs, carpets and fine portiers. Marked changes 
in style frequently affect their trade, as is shown this season in 
the popularity of light colored ladies' shoes which has necessitated 
the invention of new methods of cleaning leather. The dry 
cleaners frequenth' wash the garments as the laundry does, but, 
due to their greater skill and experience in handling fine textiles, 
the}' are able to produce better results. The work of the dry 
cleaner is some cases overlaps that of the regular laundry but 
in the main is concerned only with the finer cotton garments and 
the silk and woolen garments. 

Aside from the local scope of the cleaner, each establishment 
receives work from out of town. Some. Richmond cleaners have 
work sent them from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and other 
states, where fellow tradesmen or former patrons reside. 

Four or five Richmond concerns do dyeing. Hat cleaning is 
a separate business in Richmond but is so closeh' allied that it 
will be considered in this Chapter. In some instances it is carried 
on in shoe-shining parlors and barber shops. 

Organization — The departments in dry cleaning establish- 
ments are: The office, the cleaning department, the pressing 
department and the deliver}' department. Spotting may be a 
department in itself or included in the cleaning department. 



Chap. XIVJ Dey Cleaning and Dyeinc 243 

Dyeing if done at all, is another department. Hat cleaning in 
Richmond is not organized on a departmental basis. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males Females 

Proprietors* 11 1 

Office force* . . 4 

Cleaners 2 

Pressers 7 1 

Delivery force 4 

Total , 24 6 

Facts Connnon to All Workers 

Mental and physical requirements. — Ordinary health and 
strength are required. Pressers should not be under weight 
because of the pressure required on the iron and steam press. 
Some of the steam presses are constructed with such a leverage 
that a weight of 150 pounds on the treadle will exert a pressure of 
600 pounds on the press. The deliveryman, office girl and man- 
ager should dress neatly and be able to pleasantly meet customers. 
The manager needs executive and business ability. 

General education required. — Office girls and deliverymen 
should know how to read, write and figure. Cleaners should be 
able to read the trade journals intelligently. Employers state 
that all employees should have an elementary education and that 
high school graduates are preferred. 

Promotion. — Assistants pressers may be promoted to regular 
pressers. Pressers may be promoted to cleaners or spotters. 
In the smaller establishments the only prospect of advancement 
open to any employee is that of leaving the establishment and 
setting up a business for himself, which is not an unusual occur- 
rence. 

Source and selection of workers. — Cleaners and spotters may 
be secured by promoting pressers or by writing to some of the 
trade journals. There are a considerable number of transient 
cleaners who go from town to town much as the itinerant printer 
used to do. Workers apply in person and are tried out on the job. 

♦Proprietors and office force are here listed because they take part in the clean- 
ing processes. 



244 Occupational InfokmatIon [Part II 

Married men are preferred because they are steadier and take 
their work more seriously. Employers occasionally advertise 
for help, but state that workers obtained in this way are seldom 
satisfactory. There seems to be a prejudice, among women 
especially, against dry cleaning work as compared with factory 
work. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — The regular working day is 
eight hours. In dull seasons, cleaners and pressers leave when 
the work is done, which is often early in the afternoon. The 
busiest seasons are just before Easter and in the fall before cold 
weather necessitates heavy clothing. Work keeps up steadily 
during spring and summer but the volume fluctuates somewhat 
according to the weather. The first warm spring days mean a 
deluge of work for the cleaner. A cold rainy week means slack 
work. Overtime work is necessary during rush season and the 
working force may be increased one-third. 

The Proprietor or Manager 

What the worker does. — ^The proprietor oversees all the work, 
employs workers, buys materials and machinery, keeps the 
books and does the advertising. He exclusively manages the 
business. He may teach workers and must study trade journals 
for new methods. 

Special knowledge required. — The proprietor should know some- 
thing of each cleaning and pressing process and the essence of 
general business management. He should be able to efficiently 
route the work and know the production to expect from each 
machine and worker. Unless he can employ a competent spotter 
and cleaner, he must be an expert in applied chemistry, dyes and 
textiles. The trade journals answer questions and publish recipes 
and formulas which he must know how to read and interpret 
correctly. 

Special skill required.— The skill recjuired is the same as that 
of the most expert workers employed. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — ^^The present 
methods of obtaining the necessary knowledge and skill are: 
(l).By experience on the job, either previously in any of the 
cleaning departments, or through business experience in a custom 
tailor's shop; (2) by study of trade journals; and (3) by purchas- 



Chaj:'. XIV J Dky Cleanincj and Dyein(J 245 

ing special recipes. The basic theories of chemistry, dyes and 
textiles, which, in this business have an actual cash value, can not 
be adequately obtained in any of these ways but must be gotten 
by study directed by a thoroughly trained teacher. 

The Office Girl 

What the worker does: Office work. — The office duties consist 
of answering the telephone, occasionally writing letters, keeping 
the day book, receiving work brought to the office by customers, 
giving out work called for and answering complaints. She re- 
ceives payment for bills, quotes prices, and tells customers whether 
the work they bring in can be done satisfactorily. 

What the worker does: Cleaning work. — Her cleaning work 
corresponds to the marker and sorter in the laundry. On each 
garment she fastens a tag which she marks with the owner's name 
and a mark showing whether work is to be called for or delivered. 
When the finished work comes to her she assembles all articles 
belonging to one person and separates work to be called for from 
work to be delivered. She folds and wraps garments ready for 
delivery. There is a special way of folding each kind of garment. 
Tissue paper is used to keep the garment as fresh as possible. 
Most garments are sent out in pasteboard boxes which come ready 
cut but have to be erected for use. Some establishments send 
out many articles without wrapping. Gloves are placed and 
sealed in tissue paper envelopes or folders. The office worker 
may help with the pressing and sometimes with the spotting. 

Special knowledge required: Office work. — The worker should 
have slight knowledge of bookkeeping and forms for business 
letters. She must know prices and be able to figure discounts. 
She must know how to receipt bills. She should have sufficient 
knowledge of the process of cleaning to enable her to explain to 
customers about garment cleaning and dyeing. An acquaintance 
with the patrons of the establishment is desirable. 

Special knowledge required: Cleaning work.—Th.Q worker 
should know the marking and sorting system thoroughly so that 
no mistake will be made in sending garments to the wrong person 
or failing to have a garment delivered because she thought it was 
to be called for. She must know how to bundle each kind of 
garment handled for delivery. This involves knowing how to 
fold a garment and the special box or folder for it. She should 



24(j Occupational Information [Pakt II 

know fabrics and dyes in order to know what work to accept, 
what cannot be done at all and what should be accepted without 
a guarantee. She should know how to do pressing and spotting. 

Special skill required. — Little special skill is required except 
for pressing. and spotting. 

Hoiv special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are acquired by instruction from the proprietor and 
by experience. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The only dangers 
peculiar to the office work are those incident to handling the soiled 
clothing. Dangers from infection or contagion are probably 
very slight because no garments are collected from placarded 
houses and most of those handled are outer garments. Offices 
are well lighted and ventilated. 

Wages. — ^ Weekly wages vary from six to twelve dollars. 

The Cleaner 

What the worker does. — After the clothes are marked they are 
taken to the cleaning room. The cleaner sorts them considering 
weight, color and material. Heavy suits and overcoats, medium 
weight clothing and fine clothing are separated. Cotton lined 
garments are separated from silk lined. Very light colored gar- 
ments are put together, but beyond this little attention is paid 
to color. These lots are kept separate through each of the clean- 
ing processes. 

The worker then places one lot of clothing in the dust wheel. 
The dust wheel is a large cylinder six to ten feet in diameter and 
from two to six feet wide. It consists of a wooden frame covered 
with wire netting with slats about one-half inch wide and one inch 
apart. The worker fills it about one-fourth full of clothing, closes 
and then starts it. The wheel revolves slowly, tumbling the cloth- 
ing so that the dust is shaken out and the fabric loosened but not 
torn or strained. 

The clothes are then placed in the washing machine which 
consists of a perforated wooden cylinder about three feet in diam- 
eter revolving in a zinc containing cylinder. There are five or 
six horizontal wooden ridges projecting about two inches into the 
inner cylinder. Another type of machine may be used in which 
the inner cylinder is made of round staves two inches in diameter. 



Chap. XIV] Dry Cleaning and Dyeing 247 

The inside surface resembles a wash board. A ^^pony" washer 
with cylinder about two feet in diameter is sometimes used for 
delicate fabrics. The machine is filled with ''oil" up to about 
three or four inches from the bottom of the perforated cylinder 
and benzine soap is put in. Sometimes the worker lets the ''oil" 
stand a while with chamois skin or a bag of salt in it to remove 
moisture. Then the worker puts in the clothing. He must put 
in enough "oil" so that the clothing will not be carried up to the 
top by the revolution of the cylinder, but will stay in the bottom 
and be gently rubbed by the horizontal bars or staves. If he puts 
in too much clothing, it will not wash properly and is likely to catch 
on fire. 

The worker starts the machine by pulling the control lever. 
The inner cylinder revolves slowly and reverses every three or 
four revolutions. The clothes "run" 30 to 40 minutes. Then 
the "oil" is drained off by opening a faucet or pulling a lever and 
the machine filled again. Then the clothes are rinsed about half 
an hour. 

After the articles have been washed and rinsed they are 
taken out of the washing machine and put into the extractor. 
This is a perforated cylinder or "basket" which revolves within 
a container or "curb" with such speed that the liquid is forced 
out of the clothes through the perforations by centrifugal force. 

The clothes are taken from the extractor and dried either in 
the drying room or in the drying tumbler. Heavy clothing and 
clothing that has perishable or breakable buttons is dried in the 
tumbler. The tumbler is a wire net or perforated copper cylinder 
which revolves slowly in a container through which heated air 
passes. The worker puts the clothing in the tumbler, closes the 
machine and starts it by throwing a lever. He must stop the 
machine and take out the garments when they are dried and the 
odor of the cleansing chemicals evaporated. Other clothes are 
placed on hangers and hung in the dry room, a closet heated by 
steam coils. Most dry rooms are ventilated by an exhaust fan. 

The gasoline is purified by distillation and used over and over 
again. In fact distilled gasoline is better than new because the 
soap remains in it. The gasoline is drained from the machines 
into a tank connected with the distiller. The worker turns a 
controller which exhausts the air in the still and so draws the 
gasoline from the storage tank into it. When the still is about 
full he turns on the steam, the gasoline boils, and the vapor passes 



248 Occupational Information [Part II 

through a pipe coiled in a cold water tank. This condenses the 
vapor and allows it to run out as a liquid into another container. 

The greatest bulk of the clothing goes through the regular 
process but special methods have to be used for some articles. 
Kid gloves may be washed on a large tray full of gasoline where 
they are scrubbed by hand with gasoline soap and scoured with 
pumice. Perspiration stains cannot be taken out but the pumice 
helps to renew the surface temporarily. Occasionally they find 
colored gloves and shoes which fade because a dye has been 
used which is dissolved by the oil. Gloves may be cleaned 
by putting them is a small tank filled with '^oil" in which there are 
three revolving brushes. The worker, after putting the gloves 
in the machine, leaves them there until they have been washed 
and rinsed. A more modern machine is so constructed that the 
gloves are churned between brushes and do not come into contact 
with wood or metal. 

White furs have to be especially handled. Plumes must be 
handled very carefully and dried quickly. Most of these articles 
are dyed with the gasoline dye which fades very easily. Shoes 
are treated much as are gloves but they are more difficult because 
they are usually more soiled. The glue Avhich holds the heel 
covering may be loosened by the ^'oil" or heat of the drying room. 
Garments with perishable buttons have to be handled carefully 
or else buttons must be taken off. Some garments, such as fine 
cotton waists, verj badly soiled articles and rubl^er coats, may be 
l^etter cleaned by soap and water. Rubberized coats cannot be 
dry cleaned successfully because gasoline tends to dissolve the 
rubber. In this case they are washed out by hand and rinsed in 
warm water. 

In Richmond the cleaner also does the dyeing. Very little 
is done at present. When articles are ,to be dyed they are first 
"stripped" by putting them into a chlorine solution which neu- 
tralizes anj^ dye which may be in the article. Hydraldite may 
be used for stripping. It depends upon what dye is in the cloth. 
Then the garment is put in a soda solution which softens the fibre 
and which prevents the dye from hardening the fabric. After 
this the process varies minutely according to the kind of dye and 
the kind of textile. 

Dye is dissolved in a small container and then put in a large 
vat. There are usually three or four different vats for '^staple" 
colors. Vats are filled with salt water. The water is not changed 



Chap. XIV] Dry Cleaning and Dyeing 249 

until it gets sour, which may be several weeks. In dyeing the 
steam is turned into the vats and the liquid brought to the boil- 
ing point. Then the cloth to be dyed is put in and the boiling 
continued thirty or forty-five minutes or until the water looks 
clear of dye. The cloth is taken out and rinsed in clear water, 
then in a very weak solution of salt or acetic acid to eliminate 
the loose dye or ''set" the color. They are dried and pressed in 
the usual manner. Odd colors are dyed in a small container and 
the liquor is not kept from one time to another. 

The cleaner may do some of the work of spotting or pressing. 

Special knowledge required. — The cleaner should know some- 
thing of chemistry and textiles. A knowledge of textiles is neces- 
sary in order to be able to sort for the machine. He should know 
how to handle the ''oil" and the soap used, which is a compound 
of ether, ammonia, chloroform, cottonseed oil, petrolatum, benzine 
and stearic acid. Soap is used more on heavy, badly soiled 
articles and on the delicate fabrics which will not stand much 
manipulation. The cleaner must recognize the textiles which 
will clean best in soap and water, such as fine cotton waists and 
rubber coats, and must also know in that case what kind of soap 
to use and the reactions of soaps, softeners and the temperature 
of the water on the fabrics. He must know how each dye will 
react in the cleaning process. This fundamental knowledge of 
chemicals, dye and textiles is needed because the cleaner's work 
can never be reduced entirely to routine. New fabrics and dyes 
are continually presenting themselves and he should have the 
basic knowledge which will enable him to adapt his methods to 
these new materials. 

The cleaner should know how to operate the machines in use; 
how to clean and oil them and make minor repairs. 

Dyeing requires even more intimate knowledge of textiles 
and dyes. In regard to dyeing, the cleaner must know ''what the 
clothing will do," as for instance, whether a brown article can 
be dyed red. He must know fabrics very well and know what 
dyes to use to obtain the desired color in the particular garment. 
It is also necessary that he should know intimately the process 
to be used for each kind of dye and fabric. Owing to the present 
scarcity of dyes only the commonest and highly standardized 
are now used. The union dyes in general use do away with the 
necessity of using different dyes for silk, wool or cotton. The prob- 



250 Occupational Information [Part II 

lem is to use a process which will leave the fabric unimpaired 
for silks must not lose their brilliancy and wools must not be 
allowed to ^^felt.'^ 

Special skill required. — There is no special skill required beyond 
that of handling the fabrics carefully and quickly, and managing 
the machines easily and accurately. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are acquired by instruction from the foreman. 
Employers state that the best cleaners are usually immigrants 
who have learned the trade abroad through an apprenticeship 
varying from three to seven years. The basic courses in chem- 
istry, dyes and textiles must be obtained in school or by reading. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Although the work 
is not difficult, there is some danger from the gasoline fumes. 
It occasionally makes people actually sick. They stagger and 
become nauseated. The first symptom is usually to step too high. 
A few minutes in the open air revives them unless they are so 
badly affected as to need an air pulmotor. Workers become used 
to the fumes to some extent, but must always be careful to go 
into the air for a few minutes at the first symptom of dizziness. 
If they do not so refresh the lungs immediately, they may faint 
or become seriously ill. Gasoline may make the hands very rough 
and cause them to crack. 

Workers must be very careful in handling combustible chem- 
icals. There must be no fire in the workroom. The washing 
machines must be closed carefully so that there will be no sparks 
when the metal bindings strike. There is danger of inflammation 
too, if too much clothing or too little naptha is put into the ma- 
chine. The manipulation of the fabric- produces static electricity 
and the sparks set the gasoline on fire instantly. 

Wages. — Wages vary from sixteen to twenty dollars a week. 

The Spoiler 

What the worker does. — Garments are passed from the dry 
room to the spotter who discovers and removes spots or stains. 
He places the garment on a table or a glass-covered board shaped 
like an ironing board, and appHes the chemical with a piece of 
cloth, sponge or brush. 



Chap. XIV] Dry Cleaning and Dyeing 251 

Special knowledge required. — The spotter should know the 
chemicals used for cleaning and their specific reactions on any 
kind of d^'e or textile. He must know textiles and be able to 
recognize the kind of dyes used on each; how to recognize the 
cause of an}^ spot or stain and also know what chemical may be 
used to take it out without injuring the texture or color of the 
fabric. One Richmond man said he used ''about all the chemicals 
for sale in the drug stores and a few more." A spotting cabinet 
advertised in one of the trade journals contains 24 liquid and 
8 drj" chemicals. Some of those in common use are chloroform, 
carbon tetra chloride, alcohol, sulphurous acid, ether and benzol. 
Much of the work becomes routine in a short time but fundamental 
knowledge is needed to meet new problems which arise constantly. 
New spots, new fabrics and new kinds of dyes. 

Special skill required. — Skill is required in handling garments 
quickly and carefully, and in appl^dng the chemicals. The spot 
must not be rubbed at all but the chemical must be pressed and 
patted into the spot. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained.- — Many of the 
spotters are immigrants who have learned the trade as appren- 
tices in the old country. Some spotters have taken school work 
in chemistry. Others acquire information by reading trade 
journals. Technical education about garment construction, 
dyes and chemicals is a marketable asset. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The worker stands 
most of the time and bends over the cleaning table. Lighting 
in most establishments is partly natural and partly artificial. 
There is some danger from the chemicals used, although they are 
diluted from ninety to thirty per cent. The carbolic and sul- 
phurous acids have to be used very carefully, also the wood al- 
cohol and the chloride. There is danger of combustion from the 
naptha fumes. 

Wages. — Wages range from eighteen to tweiily dollars a week. 

The Presser 

What the worker does. — The worker presses and irons garments 
which have been cleaned and dried. A limited number of gar- 
ments come just to be pressed and do not go through the cleaning 



252 Occupational Information [Part II 

process. The worker does a good deal of the work by the old 
fashioned hand h'on and tailor's goose. Dresses and fine waists 
are done in this way. 

For coats and suits the power press may be used, or they may 
be done with the goose. This consists of a padded board of "buck" 
about one foot wide and three feet long. A steam-heated padded 
iron the same size is so adjusted that it maj^ be brought down 
over it. The process varies for each kind of garment. 

The steam press is operated by putting the garments on the 
press pad and then bringing down the padded buck on it by 
means of a foot lever. There are two types of presses; in one the 
heat comes from below, and in the other, from aboA^e. The former 
is used for heavj' garments and the latter for light garments. 
Trousers are pressed as follows: Worker lays the trousers on the 
pressing board, smooths them out so the crease will come in the 
proper place, then lays one leg back and pulls down by hand the 
upper pad; he then turns on the steam by a lever, and presses a 
foot treadle which supplies the necessary weight. He releases 
the treadle, smooths the garment with a small ''paddle' to keep 
in the steam and repeats the operation a couple of times. The 
other trouser leg is pressed the same way. 

Gloves are pressed on a hand shaped metal form. The worker 
puts the glove on the form, smooths it down and presses a thin 
pronged instrument between the fingers. Then the gloves are 
taken off, folded and put in the folder read}^ for delivery. 

One man, besides doing regular pressing work, repairs and 
remodels clothing. This consists of sewing on buttons, shorten- 
ing or lengthening trousers and coat sleeves and in repairing 
frayed edges. 

If women are employed for this work, they press the waists, 
dresses and gloves. 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must know what 
effect the pressing process will have on each kind of textile handled. 
For instance, there is a special kind of serge in common use which 
wrinkles when it is dampened by steam. The degree of heal 
to be used varies according to the kind of fabric. 

He must also know something about tailoring. It is not 
necessary that he should be a tailor, but he must know how the 
garments are made in order to know how to press them and where 
the creases, if any, should come. 

Besides knowledge of pressing, the repairman should know 



Chap. XIV] Dry Cleaning and Dyeing 253 

how to make repairs and to remodel garments. In the tailoring 
business he is known as a ''bushel man." He must also be able 
to distinguish textiles and fabrics. 

Special skill required. — The skill involved in manipulating 
the iron and in keeping the garment smooth and in preventing 
scorches, is considerable. It varies according to the textile and 
garment. The repairman in addition must be skillful in sewing. 

Hoio special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are acquired by experience on the job or by exper- 
ience as a tailor, gained usually by some type of apprenticeship. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The worker stands 
at his work. There is necessarily a good deal of heat and steam 
given off by the irons and presses. In operating the power press 
it is necessary for the worker to put his whole weight on the foot 
treadle. Lighting is partly natural, parthv^ artificial. 

Wages. — Wages vary from six dollars per week for beginners 
to twelve dollars for experienced workers. 

The Deliveryman 

• 

What the worker does. — This worker collects garments which 
patrons wish to have called for and delivers finished work. He 
may use either a horse or a machine. 

He plans to make two trips each day in each direction. Unless 
an emergency call comes, he makes deliveries and collects on the 
same trip. He gets from the book in the office a list of the work 
to be called for and work to be delivered, and plans his route 
accordingly. 

He collects payment for articles delivered. 

Special knowledge required. — The deliveryman must know the 
town well and know how to run a car or drive a horse and should 
know the cleaning process in order to make explanations to 
customers and tell what can be done successful^. Anacqiiaini- 
ance with the patrons of the establishment is helpful. 

He should be able to quote prices and exercise judgment in the 
extension of credit. He does some of the collecting and must 
keep some simple accounts. 

Special skill required.— IS^o special skill is required be3^ond 
that needed in managing the machine or horse. He must handle 
unwrapped garments carefully so they are not mussed or soiled. 



254 . Occupational Information [Part II 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The driver has to be 
out in all kinds of weather. However the bus}^ season comes 
during spring, summer and fall. 

Wages. — Wages are approximately twelve dollars a week. 

The Hat Cleaner 

What the worker does. — The worker first takes all trimmings 
off the hat. Ladies' hats which are made with crown and brim 
separate are taken apart. Some cleaners also take off the bands. 

Cloth or felt hats are cleaned as follows: He scrubs the 
hat carefully in gasohne and then places it in a heated room to 
dry. Hats may be dried on a ^'spinner/' a machine somewhat 
like an electric fan which whirls them rapidly. He selects the 
block and flange which are of the required shape and size. He 
takes the hat from the dry room, pulls the crown over the block, 
fastens the block on a machine. He starts the machine which 
turns the block. As it turns a heated iron is brought next to the 
crown near the brim and slowly moves inward as the block re- 
volves. 

The worker then takes the hat from the block and puts it on 
the flange, a board shaped to the brim with a hole in the middle 
which lets the crown through. A heavy piece of outing flannel 
is put soft side down over the brim. The worker fastens it down 
firmly by tying around the edge of the flange with a cord. The 
brim is sponged and ironed through the outing flannel. This 
gives shape to the brim. If the hat brim is of such an unusual 
shape that there is no flnage to fit it, it must be ironed by hand. 
The '^curling" irons used are specially shaped, small with one 
concave edge. 

The hat is then retrimmed. The band is put on by hand. 
The binding on the edge is first sewed on by hand, then turned 
over and stitched down with the machine. 

Panama hats and straw hats go through much the same 
process. The}^ are scrubbed in some cleaning solution, gasoline 
or warm suds and rinsed. The}^ are bleached by sulphur fumes or 
in a bath of diluted sulphuric or oxalic acid. They may be bleached 
by putting on a coat of sulphur in paste and brushing off the 
powder after drjdng. Straw hats are preferably dried in the sun- 
The hats are blocked, flanged and retrimmed. 

If a hat is to be made to order, the worker gets the felt hat shape 



Chap. XIV] Dey Cleaning and Dyeing 255 

after it has been smoothed. The brim is trimmed by cutting, it 
to a circular form. The hat is blocked and smoothed again by 
putting the blocked hat on a lathe. While the crown is turning, 
the outer surface is smoothed down by pressing it with a piece of 
glass paper. Then the leather lining is put in and the hat is 
trimmed. 

Special knowledge required. — The hat cleaner should know the 
chemicals used in hat cleaning and the reaction of each to the 
textiles used in hat making. He should know, tpo, the reaction 
of each chemical on the special textile in hand. He should know 
the different cleaning processes for each kind of a hat. 

He should know something of the hat making process in 
order to handle the hats properly in cleaning, and put on bands and 
trimmings. This knowledge is of course essential to hat making. 

Special skill required. — In flanging the hats a good deal of skill 
is required. This is especially true if the regular flange can not 
be used and the process must be done with an iron on a flat table. 
Smoothing the hats in hat making requires a light even touch. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Cleaning hats 
may be learned by experience in a hat factory or cleaning estab- 
lishment, or by instructions from a skilled worker. The under- 
lying chemistry could best be obtained in the school. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The dangers involved 
are similar to the cleaner's, incident to the use of gasoline. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The dry cleaning and hat cleaning industries of Richmond, 
although giving employment to relatively few workers, are of 
increasing importance to the community. The successful pur= 
suit of these lines of work depend upon workers having a knowl- 
edge of fabrics, their kinds, weaves and dyes; a knowledge of 
garment construction, and a knowledge of chemistry. While 
all workers in these industries would be more efficient with this 
knowledge, it is of prime importance to proprietors, cleaners and 
spotters. These workers comprise about one-half of all in these 
industries in Richmond. 

The field in Richmond is not sufficiently large to justify the 
establishment of trade preparatory courses on an all-day basis 
for those who wish to enter these cleaning industries. The Survey 



256 Occupational Information (Part II 

Committee, however, indicates that these industries require an 
accurate knowledge of fabrics, dyes, a general knowledge of gar- 
ment construction, and chemistry, and that these basic elements 
of the trade could be efficiently taught in a day vocational school. 
In fact, the development of these lines of work depend largely 
upon some adequate scheme for training new workers. 

The proprietors, cleaners and spotters in Richmond need 
day part time or evening trade extension courses in textiles, gar- 
ment construction, dyes and chemistry. This is clearly a need 
which cannot be met locally by the Board of Education, because 
of the difficulty of obtaining a well trained teacher. Such a 
teacher is not here available. All other Indiana cities are facing 
the same need and problem. The Survey Committee calls the 
attention of the Extension Divisions of Indiana and Purdue Uni- 
versities to this need, with the recommendation that a well trained 
chemist with experience as a dry cleaner be employed to give 
courses on a trade extension short unit basis to workers in these 
fields in Richmond and other Indiana cities. Such courses should 
be given in the winter during the dull season. 



CHAPTER XV 



INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT: THE LAUNDRY 

There are two steam laundries in Richmond, employing 39 
workers. There are also three Chinese laundries, not studied by 
the Survey, nor listed in the table of employees. 

Besides the commercial laundries in Richmond, institutions 
in and near Richmond employ five males and nineteen females in 
laundry work. In general, women are employed for marking and 
sorting, starching, drying and ironing; and men are employed 
for washing and delivering. 

Although laundry agencies collect work from a distance, the 
industry is, because of the nature of the work, local to each com- 
munity. The laundryman of the small town has the handicap of 
a small plant and frequently inferior equipment. Furthermore, 
his most serious competition is from the housewives and inde- 
pendent washerwomen, rather that the more stimulating com- 
petition of other laundries. No other business competes with 
its own patrons in the sense in which the laundry does. The fact 
that the work done in Richmond consists so largely of hotel and 
restaurant work and of shirts and collars, goes to show that the 
steam laundry has not yet convinced the housewife that this way 
of doing her work is the best and the cheapest. 

Laundry routine. — The laundry consists of four departments: 
The office, the laundry proper, the engine room and the delivery 
department. The business of the establishment is carried on in 
the office. This work is discussed in Chapter XIX. One laundry 
buys power from the city and so has no engine room. The other 
has an engine and boiler room. The sub-departments of the 
laundry proper follow the well-known washing processes: Sorting 
and marking, washing, starching, drying and ironing. Richmond 
laundries do bed and table linens, general family work, men's 
and women's wear, and rough dry work, which is delivered with- 
out being ironed. 

(257) 
17—5463 



258 Occupational Information [Part II 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males Females 

Proprietors (not analyzed) 2 

Office workers (see Chapter XIX) 2 

Foremen 2 ^ 

Markers and sorters 3 2 

Washers 2 

Starchers 2 

Machine ironers 17 

Hand ironers 3 

Delivery service 4 

Total 13 26 

Facts Comixion to All Workers 

Mental and physical requirements. — Ordinary health and 
strength is required of all workers. The foreman must possess 
managerial and executive ability. The foreman, office girl and 
delivery boy should be able to meet customers agreeably. The 
work of washing is usually considered too heavy for women. The 
washerman should have the type of attention which will enable 
him to keep six or eight machines going at once. Marking and 
sorting require accuracy, good memory and a power of quick 
localization similar in kind to that of the mail clerk. For the 
ironing work, girls of large physique are necessary to operate 
the bosom press, the sleeve ironer and the body ironer. 

General education required. — Education beyond the elementary 
school is not necessary. Deliverymen, markers and sorters should 
be able to read, write and count. Employers give preference to 
applicants who have at least an elementary education because 
they say they learn the work more quickly and execute orders 
more intelligently. 

Promotion. — Women workers may start at any job but the 
usual starting point is at the flat work ironer, cuff press, yoke press 
or neck band press. Then they may be shifted to collar ironing, 
body ironing, sleeve ironing or the bosom press, but this means 
only very slight increase in wage. Girls may be promoted from 
the ironing department to the marking and sorting department 
and from there to the office or to foremans' assistant. Men may 
enter as washermen, deliverymen, markers and sorters, or collar 



Chap. XV] The Laundry 259 

ironers. TKey may be promoted to foremen. All promotion 
depends on education, knowledge of the business, general intelli- 
gence and available openings. 

Source and selection of workers. — Many of the girls employed 
have been in the work for years. A considerable number are 
married women who have gained some idea of laundry work by 
home experience, but some girls are employed who have had no 
previous experience. From among applicants the employer 
selects help on the basis of age, experience, education and general 
personal fitness, and tries them out on the job. The law pro- 
hibits girls under sixteen from working at the laundry machines. 
Employers prefer workers over eighteen years of age. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — The regular working day is 
from seven in the morning to five at night, with an hour off at 
noon and no work Saturday afternoon. Little overtime is re- 
quired. Monday and Tuesday are busy days for the washermen 
and Thursday and Friday are busy days for all workers. The 
volume of work varies little from season to season. In July and 
August the work is slack as this is the vacation period and many 
people are out of the city. Workers have no regular vacation 
but may ''get off" for a few weeks during the year unless pressure 
of work prevents. The amount of business varies from year to 
year according to the prevailing styles in dress as is shown this 
year by the fuller skirts worn and consequent increase in busi- 
ness. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The hazards of laun- 
dry work have been fully discussed in Bulletin Number 122 of the 
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics entitled, ''Employment of 
Women in Power Laundries in Milwaukee." The most obvious 
danger is that incident to handling soiled clothing. Workers 
themselves are indifferent to this danger. There are no statistics 
of the number of cases of infection thus caused. Bundles are not 
collected from placarded houses and suspicious bundles are 
put into the wash without sorting. Care in washing hands before 
eating and bandaging skin abrasions would reduce the danger of 
infection to a minimum. 

The chemicals used in bleaching may cause sore hands. The 
excessive use of chemicals and lack of care in rinsing, leaves some 
of the bleach in the fabric. When this is vaporized in the ironing 
processes, it irritates the eyes and nose of the worker. Exact 



260 Occupational Information [Part II 

measurement of the chemicals and adequate rinsing would not only 
remove this danger, but would also preserve the fabric of the 
garment. In the washing and starching process, water is splashed 
from the machines on to the floors which should be constructed so 
that this will be drained off as quickly as possible. Even with this 
precaution the floors will be wet much of the time and constitute 
a hazard to the workers. 

The humidity is always high in a laundry because of the 
steam given off by the washing and ironing machines and presses. 
While this is not injurious to health unless excessive, nothing less 
than forced ventilation is adequate. 

All of the workers stand at their work. The operation of the 
treadle and the presses involve some back strain. This is much 
greater in operating the presses of the older type which require 
the exertion of almost the entire weight of the worker on the 
treadle. Back strain is also to be noted in the work of the hand 
ir oners who bend over the ironing boards. These workers also 
may suffer from the overheating of the hands due to holding the 
iron. 

The danger from laundry machinery is not great, provided 
safety appHances are used and belts and gearings properly guarded. 
Extractors should have lids which will not open when the ma- 
chine is in motion. The mangles and presses should be so guarded 
that the worker cannot get her fingers between the rolls or in the 
press. 

It is apparent that there are few hazards inherent to the 
industry w^hich cannot be overcome by proper instruction of the 
workers. Careful measurement of chemicals, modern equip- 
ment, forced ventilation and buildings adapted to the needs of 
the work, would reduce the inherent hazard to minimum. 

The Office Worker 

For the analysis of this worker, see Chapter XIX, 'Telephone 
Service." 

The Foreman 

What the worker does. — The foreman manages the concern, 
oversees the other workers, and employs and teaches new workers. 
He works out time-saving methods to reduce cost and improve the 
product. He makes the starch and soap. Starch may be bought 
ready mixed or the foreman may purchase the corn and wheat 



Chap. XV] The Laundey 261 

starch separately and mix them according to his own formula or 
by directions furnished by the company from which starch is pur- 
chased. Soap is purchased in chip form and must be dissolved 
in boiling water. The foreman usually works out the formula 
for washing each kind of fabric. He has charge of the buying of 
supplies. He may operate any machine. He must be able to 
make minor adjustments and repairs and help to install new ma- 
chines. He may also be proprietor and business manager. 

Special knowledge required.— The foreman must know how to 
operate any machine in the laundry. He must know how to 
manage the workers under him, judge ability of applicants, teach 
new workmen and make promotions. He must know how to 
route the work efficiently and get work out on time. He must 
know where to secure the chemicals and machinery used. He 
must know not only the operation of each machine but also its 
productive value. He must know the washing process thoroughly 
and understand the use of bleaches, soaps and blueing as applied 
to each kind of fabric. This involves a knowledge of chemistry, 
dyes, and textiles. He must know the formulas for making soap 
and starch. 

Special skill required. — Beyond the skill required by the 
other workers, the foreman should be able to adjust the pads and 
aprons of all machines. 

How sepcial knowledge and skill are obtained. — The foreman 
obtains his knowledge and skill by previous experience as washer- 
man or delivery man and by study of trade journals and laundry 
machine catalogs. Knowledge of applied chemistry and textiles 
should be acquired in school. 

The Marker and Sorter 

What the worker does: Listing. — The worker opens the bundle 
of clothing as it is brought in and marks on the familiar laundrj^ 
blank the number and kind of articles it contains. Different 
colored blanks are used for different classes of work: White for 
general, and blue for rough-dry, etc. If a list comes with the 
bundle, she verifies this list. 

What the worker does: Marking. — The worker marks unmarked 
articles. No special marking system is used. The marker affixes 
the owner's name, if this is practical; and, if not, she uses either 



262 Occupational Information [Part II 

an abbreviation or a symbol. The mark which is affixed on the 
clothing is also entered on the list. For each kind of garment 
there is a special place for the mark: For example, shirts are marked 
in the middle of the neck band and shirt waists on the bottom 
of the front facing. This protects the garment and facilitates the 
work of sorting. 

Most of the work is marked on a machine which consists of a 
roll of type set by keys. The operator presses the figure or letters 
in the order she wishes to use them (as in using an adding 
machine), places the article to be marked over a plate, brings down 
a frame over the plate which holds the cloth firm, then presses 
a foot treadle which brings the type roll down on the fabric. 
Releasing the treadle stops the machine and pulling another 
lever brings the type back to its orignial position on the roll. 
Collars and shirts are marked by hand with pen and ink. The 
mark is put on with a down stroke of the pen. It must be legible. 
Stockings and other articles not subject to the above methods 
are marked by attaching a tin marker on which is recorded the 
name or symbol. 

Rough-dry work is marked with numbered pins. A rack hold- 
ing thirt}^ pins bearing the same number, is used for each separate 
bundle. A pin, similar to a safety pin, is attached to each article. 
There is a special place for the pin on each kind of garment so the 
garment is not injured and no time is lost in sorting. This 
leaves as many vacancies in the rack as there are articles in the 
bundle. When the articles are sorted into the original bundles 
after washing, the pins are taken out and returned to the rack. 
The worker knows that the bundle is not completed until the rack 
is filled. 

The marker sorts the clothing roughly according to color and 
kind of textile, and garment. 

What the worker does: Sorting. — Sorting is the process of 
assembling the work into the original bundles when the washing 
and ironing is complete. Rough dry work is sorted as follows: 
There is a rectangle closed on three sides and a half by a rack 
about shoulder height. On this rack there are pegs about a foot 
apart and about a foot long. Each peg is numbered. The worker 
takes an article of clothing from the basket and slips the pin, 
which is attached to it, over the peg which bears the same number 
as the pin. In this way all the clothing which bears the same num- 
ber and belongs to the same bundle, is hung on the same peg. 



Chap. XV] The Laundry 263 

If there is also some flat work in the bundle, this is indicated 
by the list. The sorter takes off the pins and returns them to 
the rack. If the bundle is entirely rough-dry work, she ties it 
up ready for delivery; if not, she passes it on to the next table 
where it is combined with the finished work. 

The section devoted to the sorting of finished work is arranged 
with shelves. The laundry marks are chalked, about a foot apart, 
on the shelves. The worker takes the articles as they come 
from the ironing processes, and places each article on the shelf 
over the mark corresponding to the mark on the article. 

Large bundles of laundry from hotels and restaurants are not 
mixed with other bundles. No sorting is necessary, but the worker 
must count the articles and check them with the list. 

Before the sorter ties up any bundle, she must check the original 
list to see that nothing is missing. Each bundle is wrapped for 
delivery with the list on the outside. The details of the process 
may vary. Workers usually specialize on some one kind of work, 
such as, flat work, rough-dry, collars and shirts, or general work. 

Special knowledge required. — Marking requires knowledge of 
the marking system and how and where to affix the mark. It is 
an advantage for the worker to know the names and correspond- 
ing marks of the laundry's regular patrons. She must know the 
sorting system. Inaccuracy and lack of knowledge of the system, 
result in errors which may cost the business, not only money, 
but loss of patronage. 

Special skill required. — Special skill consists in affixing the 
pen marks so they are not blurred and in speed for each detail 
of each process. 

Wages-. — Weekly wages range from six to eight dollars. 

The Washer inaii 

The next process after marking and listing is washing. The 
washing machine consists of a perforated wooden cylinder about 
four feet long and three feet in diameter with several horizontal 
ridges, revolving in a containing cylinder. The direction is re- 
versed with every two or three revolutions. The machine is con- 
nected with three pipes; hot water, cold water and steam, 
respectively. The machine is started and stopped by a control 
lever. It is drained by pressing a foot treadle. The worker cleans 
and operates the machine. All repairs are made by the engineer 



264 Occupational Information [Part II 

or foreman. The washer loads his machine with articles of about 
the same kind, sorted on the basis of color, textile and the degree 
which they are soiled. He tries to remove the stains before put- 
ting them in the washer. The formulas are usually furnished by 
the foreman. Each lot goes through about seven processes. 
The first bath is cold water; then the washerman turns on the 
steam, puts in the softener and the soap, and runs the machine 
for twenty or thirty minutes. The clothes are then rinsed and 
put through another ''suds," after which they are rinsed two or 
three times. Blueing and sometimes an oxalic acid or acetic 
bleach is used in one rinse water. The process varies for different 
''loads" in the kind and amount of chemical, temperature of water, 
and length of bath. Flannels and silks must be washed with spec= 
ial care. Some very delicate articles are washed by hand in the 
old fashioned way. One man may tend from four to eight wash- 
ing machines. 

The washer takes the clothing from the machine and packs 
it in an extractor, the laundry substitute for the wringer. This 
consists of an upright perforated cylinder or "basket," within a 
solid container or "crib." The basket revolves at about 1,500 
revolutions per minute, the water being drawn out of the clothes 
through the perforations, by centrifugal force. The machine is 
timed according to the kind of articles being handled. 

The washerman also operates the drying tumbler. This re- 
sembles a large washing machine. The inner cylinder of wire 
net revolves in a containing cylinder through which a draught of 
hot air is forced. The washer loads the cylinder with rough-dry 
work, or articles such as bath towels which cannot be ironed, 
closes it and starts it by releasing a control lever. 

The washerman may have an assistant who .attends to the 
tumbler and extractor, and who also washes the flat work. 

Special knowledge required. — -The washerman should know the 
various kinds of dyes and textiles in order to sort clothing for 
the wash. He should know the best washing formula for each 
fabric and how to vary the formula to meet special conditions. 
This involves a knowledge of the kind of soap to use and amount 
of water, length of each bath and degree of heat. The washer- 
man should know something of the work of spotting described in 
Chapter XII, "Dry Cleaning." Although formulas are usually 
furnished the washerman, it would be an advantage for him to 
know the underlying chemistry of soaps, water softeners, bleaches, 



Chap, XV] The Laundbt 265 

blues, and the effect of these cleaning reagents on each kind of 
textile and dye used in garment construction. He should also 
know how to pack clothing in the extractor, and how long to run 
it for each assortment of clothing. For instance, collars are run 
longer than anything else because they must ^'take" more starch. 
He should know which articles are to be dried in the tumbler, 
which must be starched and which go directly to the mangle. 
He should be able to detect need for repairs for each machine, 
how to keep them clean and how to make minor adjustments. 

Special skill required. — No special skill is required beyond 
handling clothes with such care that they will not be torn. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The washerman 
obtains the necessary knowledge and skill from instruction from 
the foreman, or from previous experience as a helper. It takes 
two or three months to become a washer. He should obtain 
knowledge of textiles, dyes and chemistry in a school course. 

Wages. — Weekly wages vary from twelve to sixteen dollars. 
The Starcher 

What the worker does. — The starch is made by the foreman. 
There are two or sometimes three different thicknesses of starch 
which can be used for different kinds of clothing. Nurses' aprons 
and collars are starched in the thickest and fine waists and 
childrens' clothing in the very thinnest. The stai'cher dips the 
garment into the starch and wrings it. Wringing may be done 
by hand or may be done in a small extractor which revolves about 
half as fast as the extractor previously described. Cold starch 
is used for shirts, and boiled starch for other clothing. 

Collars are starched in a machine which consists of a drum, 
or roller, padded with starcher felt and cheese cloth, and half 
submerged in hot starch. The worker feeds the collar onto an 
apron which carries it through the hot starch between the re- 
volving drum and a series of corrugated brass rolls. Another 
worker, usually the collar ironer, receives it, gives it a quick ml) 
with the hand to take out wrinkles and bubbles, and hangs it 
on a drying rack which carries it through a heated drying room 
and automatically drops it in a basket as it comes out. 

The drying of other starched clothing may be accomplished 
in the same way or the worker may hang them on a rack and push 
this rack into the drying room, and pull it out when the clothes 
are dry. 



266 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required. — The worker must know what 
starch is to be used for each different kind of garment she handles. 
This involves some knowledge of textiles because different tex- 
tiles ''take" the starch differently. 

She should know how to operate the extractor and how long 
each kind of garment should be allowed to run in the extractor. 
However, only an approximation to the correct time is necessary. 

Special skill required. — A slight amount of skill is required 
in rubbing the starch from the collars and rubbing it into the 
heavy weight materials and the manipulation of machines. 

How special kjiowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill are obtained by instructions from the foreman 
and other workers. 

Wages. — A¥eekly wages vary from five to eight dollars. 

The Machine Ironer 
Facts Common to All Ironers 

Presses and cylinder machines. — Practically all ironing ma- 
chines may be grouped in two general types; presses, in which 
the part of the garment to be ironed is placed over a padded bed, 
which, by means of a foot lever, is brought in contact with a flat 
metal surface which is heated by a steam chest; and cylinder 
machines in which flat work is fed between two revolving heated 
and padded cjdinders. 

The former type is used for pressing cuffs, neck bands, and 
yokes, and shirt bosoms, and the latter for most flat work, such as 
towels and bed linen. 

Special knowledge required. — All presses are operated and 
controlled by a foot treadle or lever, and all cylinder machines 
are started and stopped by a hand lever. Each operator must be 
skillful in controlling her machine and must also be able to replace 
old pads with new ones on the press bed when necessary. She 
nmst be sufficiently acquainted with the machine to detect the 
need for special adjustments to be reported to the engineer. In 
Richmond, each operator may be called upon at any time to work 
on any machine. She must, therefore, have a working knowledge 
of the entire pressing department and all machines in use. 

Special skill required. — Skill relates to controlling the machine 
and keeping it in good condition, and in properly placing the gar- 



Chap. XVJ The Laundky 267 

ment or part of the garment on the press pad, or properly feed- 
ing flat work between the cyHnder rolls. Operators must feed in 
flat work with a straight, smooth edge, or the work will come 
out with '^ears," or long corners. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The knowledge 
and skill necessary for operating all types of presses and cylinder 
machines may be obtained in a few days while working on the 
job. 

Wages. — Weekly wages are from five to eight dollars for an 
ironing operator. 

The Machine Ironer: Collar 

What the worker does. — The collar ironer may assist the fore- 
man and the engineer. The worker takes the collars as they 
come from the drying room and lays them flat in a collar book. 
This book is about two feet wide and three feet long and contains 
leaves of thick cotton cloth which are dampened until water can 
be squeezed from them. The collars are carefully placed between 
the leaves. The ironer then places the book in a hand press, 
turns a screw and leaves it for an hour or so. This causes the 
collars to become evenly dampened. She then takes the book 
from the press, opens each leaf, takes out the collars, and stacks 
them evenly in a collar stack. She then feeds the collars into a 
cylinder ironer, which is similar to a flat work ironer, only much 
smaller. Collars must be fed in evenly. There is a mirror behind 
the first roll which enables the worker to see whether they are 
going through as they should or whether they are wrinkling or 
turning back. After passing between the rolls, the collars drop 
onto a shelf on the other side of the ironer. 

The ironed collars are then inspected for spots and wrinkles. 
Spots are remedied by rubbing with a cloth and wrinkles by 
re-dampening the collar and repeating the ironing process. If 
the collar is dirty or discolored, it is sent back to the wash. 

Collars which are to be folded are run through the seam damp- 
ener by which means they are dampened along the fold. The 
seam dampener is a small machine with an endless cord which, 
during its course, runs through a water trough, being held in place 
by guide wheels. The collars are fed between these wheels in order 
to dampen the seam along which the fold is to be made. 

The ironer runs from fifty to a hundred collars through this 



268 Occupational Infokmation (Pakl' il 

machine and then takes the pile to the ^^Shaw" machine; a machine 
with an upright brass cyhnder and an iron, shaped to the cyhnder, 
which swings on a pivot. The worker folds the collar on the 
dampened edge, places it on the circular end of the cylinder and 
passes the iron over it to smooth the edge. The folded collar 
is then run between a small revolving cylinder and a heated iron 
to round it; or, collars may be placed seam to seam in a '^shaper," 
which is a heated porcelain tube about three inches in diameter. 
As each collar is forced through the tube, it drops into a basket 
under the table. 

The collar ironer may help in some other department, such as 
starching or sorting. 

The Machine Ironer: Cuff Press 

What the worker does. — The cuffs of men's shirts are pressed 
by means of the single or double cuff press. A double press was 
in use where the type study was made. The cuff press is built 
with two saddle shaped padded beds with steam chests directty 
above the beds. The operator smoothes the cuff and places it 
on the saddle pad, wrong side up, and then by pressing a foot 
lever, forces the saddle against the steam chest which is shaped 
to fit it. She keeps the cuff" in this position for a few seconds, 
releases the saddle with another foot lever, and repeats the opera- 
tion on the same cuff, but this time right side up. While this 
cuff is being pressed against the steam chest, she mounts the other 
cuff in the other saddle. Thus both units of the cuff press are in 
continuous operation. The skillful operator loses no time between 
each operation, thus getting the maximum output possible from 
the machine. 

The Machine Ironer: Neck and Yoke Press 

What the worker does. — One girl usually operates the neck 
band and yoke press, these machines being mounted side by side. 
Both presses operate, in principle, just as the cuff press previously 
described, the essence of the operation being to place the part on 
the padded bed and bring the bed in contact with a steam chest 
by means of a foot lever. In pressing neck bands and men's 
shirts, the operator shakes some powder in the fold of the back 
buttonhole to prevent the fold from sticking together, and then 
carefully mounts the band, wrong side up, on the padded bed, 



Chap. XV] The Laundry 269 

locking it against the steam chest with the foot lever. She re- 
verses the band and repeats the operation. While the band is 
pressing she takes another shirt from the rack, adjusts the yoke 
on the yoke pad, clamps the pad against the steam chest, releasing 
it, and then presses it again, this time, right side up. When both 
band and yoke are ironed, the band is held together with a 
collar button which the presser inserts. 

The Machine Ironer: Bosom Press 

What the worker does. — The operator adjusts the shirt bosom 
on a pad, which is similar in shape and size to the ordinary shirt 
front. The bosoms must be mounted without wrinkles, and the 
neck band must be adjusted over the next form in exactly the 
proper position. By means of the foot lever, the bosom thus 
mounted on the pad is forced and clamped against the steam chest. 
While one bosom is '^pressing," she mounts another on another 
shirt pad, ready for the press. If the bosom of the shirt is pleated, 
she raises the pleats by means of a blunt instrument resembling 
a paper knife. One type of machine, now little used, rolls the 
bosom under a heated cylinder, instead of a fiat press. 

The Machine Ironer : Half Sleeve 

What the worker does. — ^The lower half of the sleeve is placed 
over a padded roll which revolves against a heated metal cylinder. 
The worker brings the cylinder in contact with the roll by a foot 
pedal. She must feed in the sleeve so that it will be ironed 
smoothly. This process may be omitted. 

The Machine Ironer: Sleeve 

What the worker does. — The sleeve ironer is similar to the half 
sleeve ironer except that the roll and cylinders are long enough 
to take in the whole sleeve. The worker feeds in the sleeve of the 
shirt so that it will be ironed smoothly. 

The Machine Ironer: Body 

What the worker does. — -This worker operates a machine similar 
to the sleeve ironer, only the cylinders are about twice as large. 
The body of the shirt is fed, onto the roll and ironed smoothly. 
This worker also irons ladies' skirts and waists in a similar manner. 



270 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

The Machine Ironer: Flat Work 

What the worker does. — Flat work, such as table and bed linens 
and towels, comes to the ironer directly from the extractor. The 
ironer shakes out each piece, laying it right side up over a pole. 
Sheets and table cloths are folded. The pole is then hung between 
the ironer and the cylinder machine. The machine consists of 
a large heated cylinder, revolving against padded rolls. The 
operator takes each article from the pole and places it on an apron 
which carries it between the cylinder and the rolls. It must be 
placed evenly on the apron and held firmly so that it will not wrinkle 
and will come out square. On large pieces two girls work to- 
gether. They stretch out the piece at the top, smoothing it out 
from the center as it is drawn in. 

Girls at the other side receive pieces as they come through, 
fold them and pile together work of a kind. They inspect at the 
same time and turn any back imperfect piece to be ironed again. 

The girls interchange positions so that each worker feeds and 
receives and folds parts of the time. 

The Hand Ironer: Shirt Finisher 

What the worker does. — The shirt finisher uses an electric iron 
on a padded ironing table. After the shirt has been machine 
ironed, the hand ironer irons the bosom again, as well as other 
parts of the shirt which need it. She then folds the shirt ready 
for delivery. A special shirt folder may do this work. In fold- 
ing, the shirt is placed on the table front down, the sleeves folded 
down over the side of the back, the sides folded about one-fourth 
their width over the sleeves, and pinned to the other side. The 
tail is then folded back toward neck and pinned, and the whole 
held in place by a strip of paper pastedaround it. 

Special knowledge required. — The shirt finisher must know how 
to fold the shirt and what parts of the shirt to re-iron. 

Special skill required. — She must know how to use the iron 
so as not to scorch or leave wrinkles in the garment. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — She obtains 
the necessary knowledge and skill by instructions from the fore- 
man or other worker, and by experience in ironing at home. 

Wage. — Weekly wages range from six to eight dollars. 



Chap. XV] The Laundry 271 

The Hand Ironer: Miscellaneous 

What the worker does. — Shirt waists, children's clothing, and 
lingerie, are ironed entirely by hand with an ordinary electric 
iron on a padded ironing board. Large pieces may be ironed on 
the steam press. When the steam press is used, the garment is 
adjusted on the padded press bed and the heated steam box is 
brought down on it and force exerted by pressure on a foot lever. 
The steam press is used for skirts, waiters' coats, and overall 
suits. Such garments may be finished by hand. 

Special knowledge required. — Worker must know how to iron 
each kind of garment and textile which she handles. She must 
know where creases, if any, should be made. 

Special skill required. — She must know how to iron smoothly 
and without scorching. She must also do her work quickly. 
Mistakes here may be expensive, particularly if the worker covers 
them up and allows them to go to the customers. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — It may take 
a month or two to train a hand ironer. Those employed have 
generally had experience in ironing at home. Both the knowl- 
edge and skill of most workers have been thus obtained. 

Wages. — Weekly wages range from six to eight dollars. 

The Deliveryman 

What the worker does. — Every Monday morning the delivery- 
m_an collects work from the regular patrons and from special 
orders. He receives blanks from the office girl, filled in with name 
and address of each customer, and places this blank in each bundle 
he collects. He plans his routes so as not to cover the same ground 
twice in the same day. Tuesday he begins to deliver and also 
collect on the same route. 

He receives payment due on bundles. He may refuse to leave 
the bundle if pay is not ready. He may drive either a horse or 
a machine. 

Special knowledge required. — Deliverymen should know the 
town so as to take advantage of short cuts, plan routes, and find 
addresses. They should know how to drive the machine or horse. 
They should know something of the laundry processes in order 
to make explanations to customers. Acquaintance with the 



272 Occupational Information [Part II 

laundry's customers is an asset. They must exercise good .iudg= 
ment in extending credit, which involves a knowledge of human 
nature and the power of wise discretion. For instance, credit 
should rarely be extended to rooming house customers. 

Special skill required. — No skill is required except the driving 
of the machine or horse. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — It requires 
about two months' time to obtain the necessary knowledge and 
skill. 

Wages. — Wages vary from twelve to fifteen dollars a week. 
Some deUverymen work on a commission basis. In Richmond 
they are censured but not made to stand the loss due to mistaken 
judgment in the extending of credit. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The steam laundry business in Richmond, while steadily grow- 
ing, is still in its infancy. The custom still prevails of doing wash- 
ing and ironing in the home, or having it done by a washerwoman 
who either comes to the home or takes the laundry work to her 
home. 

Richmond laundries consist of four departments: Office, 
laundry proper, engine room and delivery. Deductions relative 
to office work are found at the conclusion of Chapter XIX, "Office 
Service." The work of the laundry proper gives employment to 
foremen, markers and sorters, washers, starchers and ironers. 
According to the present requirements in the laundry business no 
school vocational education on either a trade preparatory or trade 
extension basis is needed for markers, sorters or ironers. 

Proprietors, foremen, and washers need a rather complete 
knowledge of the nature of fabrics and dyes, and applied chem- 
istry in the treatment of waters and in the selection and making 
of soaps and starches, and the use of bleaches. Instruction along 
these lines should be given in part-time and evening classes, but 
the Local Board of Education cannot meet this need because no 
teacher is available. As in the case of dry cleaning, the Survey 
Committee calls the attention of the Extension Divisions of In- 
diana and Purdue Universities to this need, and suggests that a 
practical laundryman of experience, who knows applied chem- 
istry, be employed to offer courses in Richmond and other cities. 



CHAPTER XVI 



OVERVIEW OF COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT 

Importance of commercial life. — Richmond is the most import- 
ant commercial center between Indianapolis, Dayton and 
Cincinnati. Its pre-eminence is partly due to the splendid trans- 
portation facilities which include steam railroads, interurban 
lines, and a highly developed auto bus system which extends to 
all the principle points in Wayne County. Richmond's com- 
mercial life dates back almost a century, but it is probable that 
there were other competing centers in the county prior to 1873, 




Modern Auto Busses for Freight and Passengers Radiate from Richmond 
to All Parts of Wayne County. 



at which time it became the seat of the county government. Since 
1873 the city has had the commercial advantages which the count}^ 
seat affords. The lines of commercial employment of most 
importance are salesmanship, office service, telephone work and 
mercantile traffic. 



(273) 



18—5463 



274 Occupational Information [Part II 

Salesmanship. — In the various retail stores are sold practically 
all types of commodities for domestic, farm and factory use that 
are to be found in the larger, cities. This makes the problem of 
training for salesmanship very difficult, as it is the present con- 
sensus of opinion that salespersons must be trained on the basis 
of the commodity sold, and the number engaged in selling any one 
type of commodity in Richmond is very limited. Aside from the 
retail stores, there are wholesale houses which handle groceries 
and produce; hardware, tools, implements, and cutlery; confec- 
tionery; and workingmen's garments. The v^arious selling occupa- 
tions in retail and wholesale houses give employment to about 
fifteen hundred workers, of which about one hundred and twenty- 
five are traveling salesmen. 

The analysis of the various phases of selling constitutes one of 
the most important features of the Survey report, as some thirty- 
one selling occupations are reported. 

Office service. — Office work gives employment to almost one 
thousand workers, of which about three-fourths are males. Each 
store, whether wholesale or retail, makes some provision for ac- 
counting, bookkeeping, receiving and making change and record- 
ing sales, while each manufacturing establishment must make 
practically the same provision. The Survey analyzed five dif- 
ferent office positions. 

Telephone service — In the city's commercial life, the telephone 
plays an increasingly important part, for example, it is reported 
that fifty per cent, of all grocery orders are received over the 
telephone. The automatic system is used in Richmond and the 
Survey analyzed the most important operating positions. 

Mercantile traffic. — Mercantile traffic, in all its branches, 
gives employment to about five hundred workers, the majority 
of whom are males. The term, coined by this Survey, is here 
used to include a large field of commercial activities, heretofore 
not described, involving all the occupations and problems incident 
to transferring commodities of any sort, from the producer, man- 
ufacturer, agent or seller to selling markets and consumer. The 
following agencies are included: Steam railroads, steamship 
lines, express companies, auto express lines, merchants delivery 
and general transfer companies. Four of the most important 
traffic positions were analyzed. 

The survey of commercial occupations. — The commercial survey 



Chap. XVIJ Oveeview of Commekoial, Employment 



275 



included a detailed study of forty-six various occupations, em- 
ploying fifteen hundred seventy-eight male and four hundred 
forty-eight female workers, or a total of two thousand twenty-six. 
These facts are reported in Table 17. 

TABLE 17 

Number of Occupations Analyzed and Workers Employed 
IN Commercial Pursuits Studied by the Survey 



COMMERCIAL PURSUITS 


Number of 
Occupa- 
tions 
Analyzed 


Workers Employed 


Total 




Males 


Females 




Mercantile traffic 


4 

31 

6 

5 


368 
707 




868 


Mercantile sales 


221 

15 

212 


928 


Telephone service 

Office service 


15 


503 


715 


Total 


46 


1,578 


448 


2,026 



Statistical facts. — The survey received individual reports from 
about one hundred salespersons, representing thirty-six different 
lines and about fifty office workers. These facts so received are 
not here reproduced, being woven into the text of each occupa- 
tional analysis. These individual reports included data regard- 
ing wages, hours of labor, length of working day, etc. 



CHAPTER XVII 



COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT: MERCANTILE 

TRAFFIC 

Meaning of the term. — The term, "mercantile traffic," coined 
by this Survey, is here used to include a large field of commercial 
activities, heretofore not described, involving all the occupations 
and problems incident to transferring commodities of any sort, 
from the producer, manufacturer, agent or seller, to selling 
markets and consumers. 

Importance. — Mercantile traffic has been studied by the Sur- 
vey on account of the varied and promising executive and 
subordinate positions open to men of ability, who possess a rudi- 
mentary knowledge of traffic problems. Moreover, the studj^ 
was thought to be of vital interest to the public as mercantile 
traffic affects all manufacturers in packing, classifying, shipping 
and marketing products; all proprietors of large and small stores 
of all types in purchasing and recognizing and delivering goods; 
all farmers in purchasing tools and commodities and marketing 
farm products, and all city and rural consumers. 

Furthermore, with increased state and federal regulation and 
control of public utilities, and especially the railroads and ex- 
press companies, the traffic problems have become of general 
public interest. All citizens, therefore, in a state whose attitude 
is in a process of formation regarding the regulation and ownership 
of the common carriers of land and sea, must be informed about 
the basic traffic problems in properly discharging their public 
duties. 

Consigning Agencies Concerned in Mercantile Traffic 

The following consigning agencies are involved in mercantile 
traffic: Steam railroads, steamship lines (not analyzed here 
because of their remoteness to Richmond), express companies, 
the post office, interurban railroads, freight audit companies, 
auto express lines, merchants' delivery and general transfer com- 
panies. 

(277) 



278 Occupational Information [Part II 

The steam railroad. — The steam railroad and express companies 
are largely responsible for the scientific development of the 
field of mercantile traffic. From the early days of the pioneer 
stage coach service and the primitive steam railroad, down to the 
present highly developed systems of transportation, the railroads 
and express companies have gradually accumulated traffic data, 
systematized it, and reduced it, in part, to a science. The former 
competition between railroads, and the recent competion between 
railroads and interurban, auto bus and steamship lines, has 
greatly stimulated the making of commodity classifications and 
rates on a scientific basis. For all railroad officials and traffic 
men, a scientific knowledge of mercantile traffic is absolutely 
necessary, and for division superintendents, freight agents, clerks, 
traveling solicitors, baggagemen, and freight handlers, a knowl- 
edge of the rudimentary skill and techniques of the field is of vital 
importance. 

The express company. — Express companies exist to consign 
and deliver commodities, and to transfer or deliver money, its 
equivalents, and other valuables. A detailed, expert knowledge 
of all the phases of mercantile traffic in their most highly developed 
scientific and practical aspects, is of prime worth to all officials, 
ratemen, adjusters, advertisers and solicitors in the express ser- 
vice. A working knowledge of the rudiments of mercantile 
traflftc is necessary for all agents, subordinate officers, office 
employees, and route and deliverymen. 

The post office. — With the development of the federal parcel 
post service, maintained by the post office, practically all postal 
employees are directly concerned with the problem of mercantile 
traffic. The government efficiency of this service, depends, in 
a large measure, upon the acquisition of those in the postal service 
of the knowledge of the latest developments and problems of this 
field. To date, parcel mail is handled by the regular postal em- 
ployees in the same manner as other mail. This means that the 
postmaster, his assistant, and all postal clerks, including col- 
lectors, carriers, weighers, and stamp sellers, must have a knowl- 
edge of the rudimentary aspects of mercantile traffic. 

The interurhan railroad. — For all officers, traffic men, solicitors, 
freight and express agents, clerks, conductors, brakemen, and 
freight handlers, in the interurban service, a knowledge of the 
field of mercantile traffic is necessary. 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 279 

The freight auditing companies. — All officers, office subordinates 
and clerks in freight audit companies, must thoroughly know the 
field of traffic. 

The auto express lines. — While auto express lines may traverse 
non-competing territory, they are able oftentimes, by lower rates 
and superior service, to successfully compete with steam and inter- 
urban railroads and old established freight companies. The sur- 
vival of this system of traffic depends upon officers and office 
subordinates having an expert knowledge of the scientific phases 
of traffic, and upon agents and auto drivers, having a rudimentary 
knowledge of the field. 

The merchants^ delivery and transfer company. — Officials, 
clerks, bookkeepers, teamsters and express handlers, must know 
the rudiments of the field, to properly run those parts of their 
business which are dependent upon contact only with the customer 
and the company; as well as to properly care for traffic which is 
dependent upon contact with the customers, the company and the 
railroad or other agency. 

The Merchants' and Manufacturers' Concern in Mercan- 
tile Traffic 

The retail merchant. — The average proprietor of the specialty 
shop and retail store is likely to think that problems of mercan- 
tile traffic do not vitally concern him. In doing so, he takes too 
much for granted, and in unable to analyze the basic economic 
fundamentals upon which his future business success or failure 
depends. As a matter of fact his entire problem of buying is con- 
nected with transportation prices. If he uses a mail order house, 
he must weigh the cost of freight against the lower price of the 
goods. If he orders from wholesale houses, he must consider 
the distance the goods have to travel. In giving an order he must 
specify how he wishes his goods to be sent and that necessitates 
facing the problem of the relative advantages of various 
methods of shipment. If speed is essential, he must know the 
quickest method of securing his consignment; if cheapness, he 
must know how to obtain quotations from different traffic lines 
and also the factors that enter into the cost of transportation. 

Much of the success of large retail mercantile establishments 
depends upon the proper application of scientific knowledge to 



280 Occupational Information [Pabt II 

traffic problems in their relation to the purchase and delivery 
of goods. 

The wholesale merchant. — The wholesale merchant determines 
the location of his establishment almost entirely upon the basis 
of traffic facilities as related to manufacturing and selling centers. 
The territory which traveling salesmen may cover with profit 
to the ''home office" depends very largely upon traffic facilities. 
The wholesaler, expert in mercantile traffic, has therefore a long 
lead and decided advantage over his competitors. 

The salesperson. — Mercantile traffic is one of the problems of 
salespersons. It enters into a study of the quality and source 
of stock, since the relation of the price of goods and the distance 
traveled in reaching the buyer must be understood by the inteDi- 
gent salesperson. In Chapter XVIII, ''Mercantile Sales," there is 
outlined the work of a grocery clerk who is responsible for all 
goods coming into his firm. He must check for correctness the 
actual goods against the invoice, be responsible for looking up 
delayed shipments, getting freight from the station and signing 
receipts. Some such responsibility is placed on at least one em- 
ployee in every retail store. 

The office worker. — Even the office worker has a vital con- 
nection with the rudimentary aspects of transportation. Some 
time he is likely to have to send or receive packages by express 
and parcel post. One retail store, whose handling of shipping 
will be further described, places responsibility for mail orders 
upon the bookkeeping department, whose province it is, also, 
to check the correctness of all express and freight bills on incom- 
ing materials, before paying them. 

The manufacturer. — The manufacturer, no less than the 
merchant, must vitally consider all phases of traffic problems. The 
location of his plant must depend upon traffic facilities as related 
to the source of raw materials, the selling markets, the terminal 
railroad facilities and rates, and the rulings of the Interstate 
Commerce Commission about classification of goods and rates. 
Manufacturers too often entirely neglect this vital aspect of pro- 
duction, when considering the obvious problems of securing 
capital, raw materials and labor. 

Proximity of railroads and facilities for switching cars there- 
fore are seen to enter into the consideration of the location of 
factories and wholesale houses. The cost of transportation, 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 281 

not only determines the price of products, but also the selec- 
tion of the most advantageous markets for both buying and selling 
materials. Methods of shipment also definitely influence the 
outlay of the plant, whether it be ample enough to admit of rail- 
road tracks, or provides only stock and wareroom facilities with a 
platform for trucks. 

The Consumers' Concern 

Shopping for the home. — While the problems of mercantile traf- 
fic touch more intimately the daily experience of business 
men and manufacturers, they are found to enter into 
the economic life of all in a very vital manner. The average man 
or woman in making the ordinary purchases of clothing, food and 
household furniture, is quite unaware of the fact that he or she is 
paying for the transportation of the goods purchased in the retail 
price quoted. Nor does he know the advantages and problems 
involved in buying directly from the mail order house, from the 
farm or the factory as compared with retail buying in the commu- 
nity. Frequently even a housewife does not realize, when she 
orders olives from the grocery, that the Spanish variety may be 
much more expensive than the California brand owing to the dis- 
tance traveled. The man who buys a coat made within the state 
may be getting a superior garment, to one more costly made 
elsewhere; since the cost of shipping must enter into the price of 
the garment. 

Shopping for the farm. — Farmers in buying implements, seeds, 
fertilizer, etc., and in sending produce to the market, need an 
adequate knowledge of the facilities of transportation, the lines at 
their command, and the advantages of each in speed, directness, 
cheapness, convenience and careful handling. 

The moving problem. — Many men are compelled by their trade or 
profession to move frequently from one locality to another, and in 
estimating the net gain of such changes, the expense of moving 
household goods must be considered. The proper methods of 
packing, how such goods are classified and what agreement must 
be signed with the railroad before shipping, ought to be known by 
all property owners. 

Mercantile Traffic in Richmond 

The scope of the field. — The field of mercantile traffic in Rich- 



282 Occupational Information [Part II 

mend includes those employed in the post office, the express com- 
panies, the freight departments of the railroads and interurban 
lines, the auto express lines, the merchants' delivery and general 
transfer companies, the delivery departments of stores and the 
traffic and shipping departments of manufacturing establish- 
ments and wholesale houses. 

Occupations. — Among the occupations involved in mercantile 
traffic in Richmond are: Postal clerks, express agents, route men 
and office force, freight agents, baggagemen, sohcitors and freight 
handlers, weighers, packers, ticket clerks, auto bus drivers and 
teamsters, traffic men, shipping clerks and rate clerks. 

As a number of factories meet their traffic problems without a 
special employee assigned to this work, it was thought best to 
study the traffic procedure in this type of organization. 

Methods of Shipping Without Traffic Employees 

Four establishments. — In the four companies employing neither 
a traffic man nor a shipping clerk, methods of handling goods are 
different in each case. In one company, where no employee has 
a knowledge of freight rating or routing, bills are paid by the 
bookkeeper without redsion. At the end of every month all 
accumulated bills for incoming and outgoing freight are sent to 
a freight audit company in Chicago to whom a fee of one hundred 
dollars a year is paid. This company checks 'over all bills, 
presents claims if there are any, and relieves the company of all 
responsibility and trouble. In the words of the manager, ''The 
service pays for itself many times over every year in recovered 
claims." 

All outgoing shipments which amount to about two hundred 
carloads are sent f. o. b. Richmond without being routed and are 
only rated when a certain proportion of the cost is to be refunded 
the consignee. This is accomplished by telephoning the railroad 
office for the rate. 

In the two retail stores of the group of firms studied, goods to 
be sold come mainly by express or parcel post, and these bills 
are not ordinarily audited. If there is a freight consignment, the 
bill is paid without question as no one in the company knows 
the freight rates, owing to the infrequency of specific problems of 
this kind. All outgoing packages are sent by mail and this is 
attended to by the bookkeeper or her assistant. 

The fourth company divided responsibiHty for incoming 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 283 

materials between the bill clerk and the disbursement clerk. 
The railroad office is called for quotations of rates and the clerks 
of the firm make up a list each year of the rates most constantly 
used. A freight audit company was used for a time but was found 
to be unnecessary. 

Outgoing shipments are handled easily for several reasons; 
the territory covered is not wide, goods being standard are always 
packed in the same way and come under the same classifications, 
and the salesmen almost always specify on their sales orders the 
customer's preference for routing his consignemnt. Small pack- 
ages are sent parcel post or express, according to the view of the 
salesman at the head of the department who computes the rate. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

Males 

Traffic men 4 

Shipping clerks 15 

Receiving and stock clerks (not analyzed) 32 

Rate clerks 8 

Deliverymen (see Chapter XVIII) 156 

Express agents (not analyzed) 3 

Transfer men (not analyzed) 60 

Express routemen (not analyzed) 3 

Freight agents (not analyzed) 3 

Freight house foremen (not analyzed) 3 

Assistant freight house foremen (not analyzed) 6 

Tallymen (not analyzed) 7 

Freight handlers (not analyzed) 51 

Baggage agents and assistants (not analyzed) 5 

Baggage truckmen (not analyzed) 10 

Parcel post clerks (not analyzed) 2 

Total 368 

Scope of this study. — With the limited time and resources at the 
disposal of the Survey, it was impossible to study the whole field 
of mercantile traffic, therefore such occupations were selected for 
detailed analysis as would best serve to indicate the possibilities 
of the field and give an overview of the whole. Those selected 
are: The traffic man, the shipping clerk and the rate clerk. 
The Survey carefully studied the shipping methods in nine fac- 
tories, three wholesale houses and two retail shops, in addition 



284 Occupational Information [Part II 

to the local and division freight offices, the express office, the in- 
terurban freight office and the postal service. 

General duties of traffic employees. — A skeleton outline of the 
field of duties of traffic employees which covers every phase of 
traffic service and of which only a part would probably be per- 
formed by any one shipping or rate clerk, might be summarized 
as follows : 

1 . Supervision of packing in warehouse. 

2. Supervision of weighing. 

3. Making out all forms or checking them. 

4. Routing and rating all outgoing cars and packages, if not already 

specified by consignee's order. 

5. Rating and routing packages and cars on prepaid shipments and 

tbose sent f. o. b. destination. 

6. Preparing computations of rates and directions for routing in- 

coming raw materials. 

7. Refiguring rates and routes on incoming shipments. 

8. Supervising carting of packages, switching, loading and unload- 

ing freight cars. 

9. Keeping records of shipments. 

10. Tracing delayed shipments. 

1 1 . Filing claims for loss, damage and overcharge. 

The Traffic Man 

What the worker does: Handling incoming freight. — The traffic 
man looks up the tariffs for various points and calculates cost 
and directness of various routes; computes the actual cost by 
multiplying the rate by the weight; makes out, for the shipper 
through the purchasing agent, directions for sending incoming 
raw materials which his firm has purchased; checks back all 
freight bills for incoming material, as well as the routes by which 
it came, to see if they were chosen wisely; and usually specifies 
that shippers use the road from whose tracks the consignee has 
a switch. 

If there is a mistake in the rates he takes it up with the 
shipper or with the railroad. All claims for damage, loss or over- 
charge are handled by the traffic department. If the bill con- 
taining a mistake can be attended to during the month in which 
the mistake was made, the claim can be settled through the local 
freight office; if later, it must be handled through the division 
freight office. He oversees the unloading of freight and notifies 
the railroad when a car is empty. 



Chap. XVII] Mebcantile Traffic 285 

JVhat the worker does: Handling outgoing freight. — The traffic 
man looks up rates in tariff books; computes rates on all outgoing 
shipments and routes them, marks the same on every bill of lading, 
and prepares all forms including the ''manifests" for export; 
carries on all correspondence in obtaining quotations from dif- 
ferent transportation companies; directs and supervises the load- 
ing of the car; traces delayed shipments and helps consignee urge 
for lost and damaged consignments; makes out list of freight 
rates for salesmen for their various districts. 

Special knowledge required: Tariffs. — The traffic man must 
have in his possession as many tariffs as are necessary to handle 
the business of his company. He may require a library of per- 
haps a thousand volurnes, to include class commodity tariffs and 
classifications with supplements for interstate rates on all the main 
railroads and water ways in the United States. Express and 
parcel post tariffs must also be on file. He must know how to 
read these tariffs accurately in order to find rates from his own 
shipping point to any destination as well as from any shipping 
point to Richmond. This reading of tariffs is a technique unlike 
any other. To look up one rate, the clerk may have to use several 
books, indexes, classifications and territorial divisions. He 
must also know if there is any difference between interstate and 
intrastate rates. He must have all the decisions, up-to-date, 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission. He must know the 
comparative cost of a carload and a less than carload shipment. 

The traffic man must know the advantages and disadvantages 
of using through rates, and the cost of transfer from one road to 
another. A knowledge of the rates for local shipments and those 
of motor busses and interurban cars is also necessary. He must 
know rates and classifications for express and parcel post and 
be able to use their tariffs. He must also know whether classi- 
fications for interurban freight are identical with those for railroad 
freight. 

Special knowledge required: Routes. — He must have for con- 
stant use an Official Guide published by R. G. Dun, of Dun and 
Bradstreet; maps pubhshed by the Rand-McNally Company 
and also maps printed by the Western Freight Association. For 
express routing he must have Bollinger's Guide and all the route 
books of each express company; and for parcel post the Official 
Postal Guide, pubhshed by J. B. Lyon, Albany, New York. He 
must know what routes are covered by motor trucks and inter- 



286 Occupational Information [Part II 

urban cars and the advantages thereof. Equipped with a knowl- 
edge of these sources of information, he must be able to find for 
any given shipment, incoming or outgoing, the most direct and 
speedy route from one point to another. A knowledge of the 
comparative advantages of each line of transportation is required. 
He must also know connecting points, transfer points and terminal 
facilities. 

Special knowledge required: Packing. — One of the special 
problems of the traffic man is packing, owing to its being one of 
the factors in the classification of freight and parcel post, and 
express. Not long ago a traffic man found that certain goods 
were being packed in such a way that they were subject to a higher 
classification than necessary. He had all the pasteboard boxes 
broken open and the goods packed in a different way in order to 
take advantage of a lower classification rate. 

The value of knowing the correct way of packing may be 
illustrated by the story of a Cincinnati firm which sent a con- 
signment of matches to Richmond. They were not packed ac- 
cording to the regulations published by the Interstate Commerce 
Commission, and were not given a yellow label, which is demanded 
for that kind of inflammable goods. The mistake was discovered 
and the Cincinnati firm made to pay a five hundred dollar fine. 
The Interstate Commerce Commission maintain secret service 
men to inspect goods of all kinds sent by express or freight. 
They are empowered to open and examine any package in the 
freight station or in a private firm and report mistakes found. 
The railroad, the shipper, or the consignee, whoever is responsible, 
must pay a fine for ignorance or error. The traffic man super- 
vises all the packing in his firm, gives instructions concerning 
methods of boxing goods, the amount of packing and the kind of 
crates to be used for certain classes of goods. For example, he 
must know that iron bound wooden boxes must be used for all 
goods for export trade. 

Express companies always send a representative to a consignee 
who complains of receiving damaged goods. If a package is found 
not to have been packed according to regulation of the express 
company, the shipper is charged for what is broken. A company 
which handles breakables must know that to pack them right is 
not always to pack them tight. One large wholesale firm dis- 
covered this fact after sending a number of lampshades to a local 
store and running up an amazing percentage of loss. When it 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 287 

was demonstrated that the shades were packed too tightly for the 
margin of flexibihty, and after one thickness of corrugated paper 
was removed from the box, the breakage was greatly reduced. 

Another instance of the relation of cost of transportation 
and methods of packing was experienced by a firm in the south 
that sent a machine to Richmond with a freight charge of $34.00. 
This excessive cost was due to the fact that the shipper sent the 
machine set up and crated instead of ''knocked down/' which made 
the commodity subject to the double first class rate. 

Special knowledge required: Forms. — The traffic man must 
know exactly how to prepare all forms used in traffic. Some of 
these are: Bills of lading, shipping orders, and memoranda, all 
of which must contain exact weight, description of goods, rate 
and route, shipper's and consignee's name and address; freight 
receipts, car ticket and way bills. He must be able to send pack- 
ages c. o. d. or parcel post and know how to insure them and how 
to keep an express receipt book. 

The traffic man must know, in regard to these forms, how to 
have them signed, and exactly what the terms of mutual obliga- 
tion are; to whom to send each form, and which one to file. He 
must know on what basis his commodities are classified and how to 
describe them accurately, which requires a thorough familiarity 
with the product of his company. He must also know the entire 
history of any shipment; exactly how it has been handled by rail- 
roads, express, parcel post, interurban and freight or motor truck 
companies. 

The importance of proper form making cannot be over empha- 
sized. Not long ago a girl in a certain Richmond factory, who 
marked shipping tickets for individual parts of a consignment 
and whose work was not supervised, addressed her tickets so that 
a shipment of goods went to Mr. Jones of Omaha, instead of Mr. 
Jones of Toledo, with the resulting cost of hundreds of dollars for 
hauling the heavy commodity back and forth. 

The express agent at Richmond, in commenting upon the 
carelessness with which shippers addressed packages, stated that 
in one week he found fifty-one shipments marked with two perfectly 
obvious addresses which caused confusion and delay since packages 
were first sent back to the shipper, then on to the consignee, or 
back to a transfer point and then on to the shipper. Each delay, 
even if it does not cost the shipper money directly, is bad business 
and bad salesmanship. 



288 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required: Local hauling facilities. — If the 
company has private tracks which connect b}^ switches to the 
main railroad lines, the traffic man must know these facts: The 
railroad allows only two days' free use of an incoming car, during 
which time it must be unloaded, or be subject to a demurrage 
charge of two dollars a day; the railroad's switching charge is three 
dollars for transferring to another railroad; a car loaded to mini- 
mum weight, standing on a siding, must be picked up by the rail- 
road. If the company has no tracks of its own, the shipping 
clerk must know how to get freight cars for loading and how to 
handle less than carload lots. When ordering from shippers, 
Richmond merchants, or their shipping clerks, must consider 
what carrier will reach them most conveniently and directly, 
and what drayage charges will have to be met. 

The shipping clerk must know the various hours at which 
certain carriers move; when the interurban freight car leaves; 
what is the schedule of motor trucks; when express trains and 
parcel post come in and out; and when his drayman must have 
freight at the freight house. 

Special knowledge required. Claims. — When a shipment is 
delayed the shipping clerk must know how to have it traced. 
If there is any loss or damage to the actual goods (sometimes a 
company presses all claims for both incoming and outgoing traffic 
and sometimes only on one or the other) the shipping clerk must 
know how to take up a claim against the company responsible. 
This involves transactions with the local office, if it can be taken 
up at once, or with the division office, if taken up later. The 
question of overcharging also has to be taken up in the same 
manner and claims for rebates, showing the original rates and the 
tariffs paid, go to local and division claim offices and finally 
to the Interstate Commerce Commission. 

Special skill required. — Penmanship is essential since forms, 
addresses and figures are extremely important. AbiHty to type- 
write is an asset since many forms can be best made out on the 
typewriter or billing machines. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained on the job. — The 
traffic man who learns his technique on the job must nevertheless 
have some coaching from a superior in learning to read tariffs. 
After the general principles involved in tariff reading have been 
grasped, rapidity and accuracy are acquired by experience. 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 289 

Previous training in a railroad office is of some assistance. Type- 
writing is frequently acquired after entering upon the job. 

How special knowledge and skill are acquired by theoretical 
training. — Courses in traffic work are now being given in several 
large universities as a special division of their commercial or busi- 
ness department. An extension division of one university offers 
such training by correspondence. An outline of its curriculum 
is suggestive as showing the content of this subject. 

Transportation in the United States 

Freight classification 

Freight rates: Official and Eastern Canadian territories; Southern 
territory, Western territory 

Publication and filing of tariffs 

Some ways of reducing freight charges 

Routing freight shipments 

Bases for freight charges 

The industrial traffic department 

The biU of lading 

Freight claims 

Transit privileges 

Investigation of freight claims 

Railway organization and service 

Statistics of freight traffic 

Railway accounting 

The express service and rates 

Ocean traffic and trade 

Railway regulation 

The act to regulate commerce and Supplemental Acts 

Conference rulings and procedure of the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission 

Demurrage and oar efficiency 

Grounds of proof in rate cases 

AppKcation of tariffs 

Laws of carriers of goods 

Guides : Atlas of railway traffic maps, traffic glossaries 

Although this correspondence course has been found helpful 
by several of those who have taken it, directions for solving prob= 
iems are frequently inadequate; for example, a student found, 
that in trying to determine the rate between two points^ he was 
confronted by three possibilities, any of which might apply. 
He was unable to obtain any assistance either in the text or direc- 
tions by the school. 

' ' How special knowledge and skill are acquired hy traffic associa- 
tions. — Technical knowledge which must, in this work, be kept 

19—6463 



290 Occupational Information [Part II 

absolutely up-to-date, may be gained through connection with 
such associations as the Western Freight Association, which 
supplies maps and copies of agreements to its members; or through 
membership in clubs where traffic men meet to discuss practical 
problems of shipping. Decisions of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission are sent out to shippers who request them. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The traffic man must be 
exceptionally intelligent since his work demands great power of 
concentration and analysis. His must be the type of mind to 
grasp details and to organize them to conform to a general scheme 
to suit his particular requirements. 

Since his work is of an executive character, there are no special 
requirements of physique which distinguish this worker from 
another. 

General knowledge and education required. — A broad general 
education is a decided asset to the traffic man, although the ex- 
ceptional man is frequently able to advance without it. 

The basic school courses, on which success in traffic work de- 
pends, are: Penmanship, business arithmetic, industrial history, 
knowledge of business procedure, business forms and commercial 
geography, which should include the reading of maps and a 
knowledge of where further information is obtainable. English 
is especially necessary in this work as the traffic man has to deal 
with many different individuals and carry on a great deal of care- 
fully prepared correspondence. 

Promotion. — The position of head traffic man is the highest 
one in this field and is comparable to that of the manager in other 
departments, since it is really an executive job. The assistant 
traffic man is next in rank and he may have been promoted from 
shipping clerk or may have come from the position of rate clerk 
in the railroad office. 

Source and tielectlon of workers. — The usual source is from 
within the establishment or by securing a rate clerk from the rail- 
road office. Since the whole field is a new one, the matter of 
selection is to some extent experimental, but is usually made in 
favor of the most expert worker in the position just below. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — Employment is continuous 
throughout the year, but there is a good deal of overtime since this 
work is practically on a professional basis. One traffic man said 



Ghap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 291 

he could not keep abreast of his work without doing a good deal 
on Sunday. A traffic man must be on hand at the end of the day 
until all shipments are off and memoranda properly signed and 
mailed. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no inherent 
hazards in this work. It allows for more activity than the usual 
office position since his responsibilites carry the traffic man into 
the warehouse and stock-room. His desk is usually in the office 
proper. 

The Shipping Clerk 

What the worker does in branch companies. — The nine companies 
which employ shipping clerks but no traffic men, var}^ in the 
amount of work required of a shipping clerk. Two factories, 
allied to large parent companies, receive from them orders for 
all their product, which contain specific directions for assembling 
and routing the consignment and which state the computed rate. 
The shipping clerks have only to direct packing, prepare proper 
forms and oversee the loading of goods. No calculations or use 
of route books or tariffs are required. 

Incoming raw material, to one of these companies, is sent by 
the parent company which rates and routes it. The other company 
receives most of its raw material, such as pig iron, coal, lumber, 
etc., f. o. b. Richmond, and, therefore, the only responsibility in 
handling it depends upon the bookkeeper who must credit on the 
invoice from the shipper the amount of freight paid. If any 
shipment should be received f. o. b. shipping point, the clerk 
telephones the railroad company for the rate from the shipping 
point in order to check it back. He looks up the route in Dun's 
Official Guide. 

What the worker does in small branch companies. — Two other 
branch companies receive orders for products through the main 
office. Since these consignments go to certain well known })oints 
and are sent f. o. b. Richmond, the routing performed by the ship- 
ping clerk is very simple, especially as both companies use the 
railroad adjoining their propert3^ Rates are never figured but 
left blank for the railroad clerk to fill in. These companies handle 
raw material with equal simplicity of system, since bills for in- 
coming freight and express are not checked for correctness. 

What the worker does as assistant to purchasing agent. — In 



292 Occupational Information [Part II 

another iirm the purchasing agent is responsible for freight bills 
on incoming materials. Consignments are often sent by firms 
which make a contract including freight charges. He figures 
rates and routes when he audits the freight bills on incoming 
material. He has a rate book but if it is not up-todate or ade- 
quate, he telephones the freight office for a quotation of required 
rates. He also figures routes by consulting the map. 

Shipments are sent according to the directions of salesmen. 
Orders come through the office where large shipments are marked 
to be sent by freight f. o. b. Richmohdj and small consignments 
marked for parcel post or express, according to the speed desired 
bj^ the consignee. Packing, w^eighing and timing the transpor- 
tation is all the shipping clerk is required to do. The purchasing 
agent routes many of the large shipments sent to main points, 
especiall}^ those on Avhich an allowance of freight is to be granted 
the consignee. He also computes rates with the aid of quotations 
from the local and division freight office. He is not a traffic ex- 
pert and has onlj^ a few tariffs to consult. 

What the worker does when solely responsible. — The duties of 
the shipping clerk in the traffic department of another company 
should be briefly outlined. All orders for outgoing shipments are 
sent to him for routing. He is responsible for methods of ship- 
ping used. He attends to packing for parcels post or express. 
If the consignment goes by freight he writes up bills of lading. 
He supervises and checks all routing as suggested b}^ consignee. 
If it is very poorl}^ routed, it is re-routed. If no routing is expressed 
it is routed. No rating is given since all orders are shipped f. o. b. 
Richmond. He helps customers trace losses but does not file 
claims, and obtains the rate, if shipment is by express. 

On incoming shipments the purchasing agent gives orders 
to the traffic man for routing. He attends to unloading of freight 
and routes carload stuff but not less than carload lots. If a loss 
is noted, the company tries to make the shipper pay the claim. 
Freight bills are figured bj^ calling upon the freight office for 
rates. For delays, the tracing department is notified and for loss, 
the claim departments are notified. Express bills are also re- 
figured. 

What the worker does when the 'products and markets are standard- 
ized. — In the seventh establishment rates and routes from incoming 
shipments are handled very simply. The goods are standard 
and long familiarity has acquainted the shipping clerk with 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 293 

proper rating and routing. The bill clerk or the traffic man 
checks up rates and when in doubt calls the freight office for quo- 
tations. 

At one time bills were sent, at the end of the month, to a freight 
audit company for auditing. Because this involved considerable 
correspondence and trouble with very little benefit, it was dropped. 
At present there is no check on rates for incoming material except 
as the experience of the bill clerk and purchasing agent may detect 
gross errors. Since they have no tariffs and possess no accurate 
knowledge of rates and routes their judgment is of little value. 

What the worker does when assisted hy the traffic clerk. — Bills 
for incoming traffic in one wholesale house are checked by the 
traffic clerk, and, although he has no tariffs for reference he is 
able to figure rates approximately owing to his previous experience 
in a railroad office. For outgoing consignments no rates are 
figured. Routing is easily handled because shipments are for 
very short distances and only cover a zone of a few hundred miles. 
Bills of lading are made out by the bill clerk, who describes the 
article, writes consignee's and shipper's names, weighs packages 
and adds weights. The salesman usually specifies the customer's 
preference for express, parcel post or freight. If such direc- 
tions are not given, the package is sent the cheapest way. The 
warehouseman is final arbiter of such questions. He has a general 
list of classifications of the materials handled and must know 
in general the prices of carload and less than carload lots, accord- 
ing to the weight and bulk of shipments. 

What the worker does as office assistant. — Since all forms are 
made out in the office of this company by the bookkeeper and 
clerical workers, the shipping clerk has a very limited responsi- 
bility. He receives orders from the office concerning number 
and kind of shipments, and directs the boxing and packing for 
freight and express. He supervises the weighing of every ship- 
ment and sends a memoranda of weights into the office. He directs 
the draymen in handling packages, but has no jurisdiction over 
methods of shipment as they are stated in the orders he receives. 
Further responsibility in this company consists of preparing bills 
of lading and memoranda on outgoing shipments and in figuring 
extensions on bills for incoming freight. No familiarity with rates 
and routes is expected of any employee. Much of the raw material 
comes prepaid. 



294 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required: Tariffs. — The information the ship- 
ping clerk must have, as compared to that needed by the traffic 
man, is much less intricate and not nearly so broad and inclusive. 
He has for instance, to know nothing at all about tariffs and clas- 
sifications, except in the one or two cases already mentioned where 
the individual happens to know a little and puts that little to use. 
A general knowledge, however, on what basis classifications are 
made so that he will appreciate the value of accurate weights and 
methods of packing is required. 

Special knowledge required: Routes. — He must know in general 
what the traffic man knows about routes but uses, for the most 
part, what local information has been outlined. 

Special knowledge required: Packing, forms and claims. — 
Practically everything that the traffic man is required to know 
about methods of packing goods and forms to be prepared, must 
also be known by the shipping clerk. He must also know the 
channels for securing claims on various transportation lines. 

Special skill required. — Penmanship is essential and very often 
typewriting is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The shipping 
clerk learns on the job practically all that he is required to know. 
For success he also must know the products and particular system 
used by his company in recording shipments. 

Theoretical training only applies to preparation for promo- 
tion since very little of the technical knowledge needed by traffic 
men applies to the work of the shipping clerk. 

Mental and physical requirements. — There are no require- 
ments of the shipping clerk which distinguish him from other 
kinds of workers, except that he must have initiative and the kind 
of mind which enjoys solving problems and which appreciates 
the beauty of system and economy. 

General education required. — ^Since there is a less accurate 
and less complicated content of knowledge demanded b}- the work 
of the shipping clerk, he is not required to have as broad a general 
education as the traffic man. The basic school courses already 
discussed apply also to this worker. 

Promotion. — Promotion cannot be discussed in general, since 
over}^ establishment has a different system. One worker progress- 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 295 

ed from shipping clerk to head of the traffic department. Another 
started as a stenographer in a freight office, became a raikoad rate 
clerk and then shipping clerk in the traffic department of a private 
company. Such instances are typical, although some men were 
found in this group who began, continued and still continue as ship- 
ping clerks with no opportunity to advance. 

Source and selection of workers. — As indicated above, a man 
may enter employment as shipping clerk; he may be lured from the 
railroad office by the inducement of higher salary or he may be 
promoted from other positions in the firm. One shipping clerk 
in a factory, who also acted as stock man, had been promoted from 
machine operating in the shop. One worker was advanced from 
the position of bill clerk. Workers are selected by interview and 
trial. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Because shipping and traffic 
work carries responsibility and bears a strong similarity to profes- 
sional work it cannot be limited to standardized hours. Irregular 
hours and a great deal of overtime is expected of the shipping clerk. 
He must stay and see that important freight is actually sent off 
and memoranda of bills of lading mailed to consignees. Employ- 
ment is continuous throughout the year since, whoever else can 
be spared in slack times, it is never the man who knows all there is 
to know about the firm's traffic. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no inherent 
hazards. The shipping clerk is in and out of the factory super- 
vising packing, loading and unloading but has his desk in the 
office where he keeps his ffies and typewriter. 

The Rate Clerk 

There are eight rate clerks in Richmond in the three railroad 
freight offices, besides the station agent of the interurban line who 
performs the same duties. 

What the division rate clerk does. — The rate clerk's duties are 
manifold and difficult to describe briefly. He makes rate quota- 
tions to individual shippers or to the local freight office, suggests 
routes and works out combinations, handling not only the tariff 
of his own but of other roads. Sometimes this becomes very 
intricate, as, instanced recently when a certain shipper sent in a 
request for all freight rates from Richmond to any point in 



296 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

Pennnsylvania and included in the list places that were mere 
names on the map and possessed only a few inhabitants. 

The rate clerk checks all rates which appear incorrect. In- 
coming freight, which has been incorrectly figured, and which is 
reported by the consignee, or, on occasion, by the receiving agent, 
is refigured by the rate clerk. He corresponds with other rail- 
road lines about rates. 

He figures the basis of new rates, i. e., mileage, etc., on the 
commodity basis whan not found in the tariffs. These new rates 
must be passed on by the head clerk who must also discuss them 
with the freight agents on other lines either by correspondence or in 
conference. 

What the local rate clerk does. — Local freight office clerks have 
in general the same duties as those outlined above, except that 
their quotation of rates frequently cover a smaller field. In 
addition, they fix rates and routes on all shipping tickets for out- 
going freight. This task is unusually large in Richmond because 
very little outgoing freight is marked by local shippers. 

Special knowledge required. — What the traflic man or shipping 
clerk in a private firm has to know about routes, classifications 
and rates, must be understood in general by the raxlroad rate 
clerk, although his field is not so broad. One traffic man, who had 
worked first in the railroad and then in a private firm, compared 
the two fields as follows: ''The traffic work in a private firm is 
broader because it covers problems of varying character and 
involves every kind of transportation fine. As a railroad rate 
clerk, I had only to figure rates on my own and on connecting 
lines. When I was asked for a rate between two points, I did not 
have time to study various combinations and schemes for saving 
money as I now do.'' The railroad clerk does not have to know 
about parcel post, express or water routes, but only about regular 
freight tariffs, consequently his experience is narrower and his 
knowledge less complete than that of the traffic man in a private 
company. 

Skill required. — The only skill required is in penmanship and 
typewriting. The former is very important since figures and ad- 
dresses on original bills of lading have legal significance. 

How special knowledge and skill are acquired. — Penmanship 
and typewriting are usually prerequisites to employment. Special 
knowledge concerning rates is not required and may be obtained 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 297 

on the job. Further training through correspondence courses 
in traffic problems is an aid to promotion. 

Mental and physical qualifications. — Since this is office work 
and the worker is not physically active, little strength of muscle 
is required. Both speed and energy of a purely mental character 
are required; also power of analysis and concentration. 

General education. — A high school education is an asset, if not 
a necessity, to a rate clerk for entrance, success and promotion* 
Probably few rate clerks have less than an elementary school 
education and a number have probably had high school work 
since heads of offices expressed themselves as preferring high 
school graduates. This work needs arithmetic and rapid calcula- 
tion in order to figure rates; grammatical English with which to 
meet the public in person or over the telephone; systematic and 
accurate methods of work and training in concentration. 

What the worker lacks. — Railroad officials have little criticism 
to make of the efficiency of their employees in this field but point 
out the fact that ver}?- few rate clerks show initiative in grasping 
the possibilities of advancement offered them. With but few 
exceptions they remain fixed to their original job. 

Promotion. — The logical scheme of promotion as indicated by 
the head of one office is as f ollws : Stenographer or clerk, to claim 
clerk, to rate clerk, to assistant chief, and to chief clerk. The 
rate clerk may also find a batter position in a private firm or he 
may go from a local to a division office or vice versa. 

Source and selection of workers. — The selection of workers is 
generally made from among the stenographers or clerks already 
in the employ of the company. If no one in the office seems fitted 
for the job, a man from the outside is engaged and given a trial. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Employment is continued 
throughout the year with no regular vacations. There is a great 
deal of overtime expected for which there is no extra remunera- 
tion. 

Hazards and inJterent character of work. — Offices are usually 
crowded and noisy and the work is confining. 

Wages.— $90.00, $105.00 and $110.00 per month are the respec- 
tive salaries paid to three experienced rate clerks. 



298 Occupational Information [Part IT 

Deliverymen 

For the analysis of work of the deliverymen employed in various 
retail and wholesale stores of Richmond, see Chapter XVIII, 
"Mercantile Sales." 

Limitations of the Present System of Handling Shipments 

in Richmond 

In Routing or Rating Outgoing Commodities 

Ba(l salesmanship. — Because a large per cent, of good sales- 
manship consists in service to customers, the executive head of a 
firm, which does a good deal of shipping, ought to consider the 
the efficacay of careful rating and routing outgoing shipments. 
Very often the consignee has no facilities for computing rates 
and routes and is therefore at the mercy of the railroad official. 
It is the practice of several large companies in other cities, not only 
to compute rates and routes on outgoing shipments, but to audit, 
for their customers, freight bills on their own consignments if the 
customers will return the bills for auditing. Such a practice is a 
great asset to a company. Small buyers feel perfectly safe in 
purchasing from a firm which handles its shipments in this way 
and therefore not to extend these services is bad salesmanship. 

Bad business. — If a company prepays any of its consignments, 
signs contracts for delivery or ships f. o. b. destination, it should 
know the rates on all its shipments. The present practice in 
Richmond is to get rate quotations by telephoning the railroad 
office. The loss resulting from this method lies in the fact 
that the railroad officials are too busy, to give detailed ad- 
vice, and although the clerks are perfectly willing to look up 
rates between the points asked for, and, although they have 
technical knowledge which enables them to handle tariffs 
swiftly, yet they have not the time to study each situa- 
tion and figure the various combinations of routes which will 
net the consignor a saving in rates or hours. The railroad official 
also has a natural bias in favor of the road he serves and therefore 
may be expected to route consignments over it in preference to 
other roads which may be more direct or cheaper. Hence the pri- 
vate company which uses the railroad office for securing all its 
information concerning rates and routes, has no check on the 
advice given and can not know how much money is lost from im- 
proper shipment. 



Chap, XVII] Mercantile Thaffic 299 

In Auditing Bills of Incoming Freight 

The large shipper. — Large shippers who buy suppHes and raw 
material in great quantities ought to be able to re-figure the rate 
of transportation. A rate may be secured by telephoning the 
railroad but it is subject to the difficulty outlined above. A 
buyer in taking the shipper's rating and routing, does not know 
whether it is accurate or correct. 

A traffic man interviewed for this study, spoke of a recent con- 
signment of bricks shipped by contract and so carelessly routed by 
the shipper that it was sent over a road which had not even a 
branch line to Richmond. This meant that the consignee, although 
not paying the actual freight rate, would have to pay for the trans- 
portation and for the extra teaming work in hauling the consign- 
ment between the railroad and the factorj^ instead of using their 
own convenient railroad switch. Having an expert traffic man, 
this firm was able to re-figure the charges on the consigament and 
demand that the careless shipper refund the unnecessary hauling 
charge. 

The small shipper, — The retailer who buys in small quan- 
tities ought to bs specially careful about bills for incoming freight 
because less than carload lots are not standardized as carload 
lots. Loss through ignorance of proper rates and routes prob- 
ably amounts to several hundred dollars a year for Richmond 
merchants. Expert knowledge of the rates and routes is necessary 
to adequately cope with the situation. 

An instance of loss through ignorance or carelessness is found 
in the routing of freight packages from Toledo which have a regu- 
lar overcharge of twenty-five cents. This is due to careless 
routing by the shippers who send the consignments through 
Marion instead of direct to Richmond, and thereby involve a 
transfer charge of twenty-five cents extra on each package. 

In Using Freight Audit Companies 

A wasteful method. — The practice of using a freight audit 
company has already been mentioned in this analysis. It con- 
sists of turning over to a central bureau or audit company the 
bills collected and paid during the month by a shipper. The audit 
company employs traffic experts to audit the bills and to present 
all claims for overcharges. There are two systems of remunera- 
tion used by such bureaus; one, a charge of a fixed sum for what- 
ever service is necessary; the other, a charge of a commission on 



3U0 Occupational Information [Part II 

a basis of fifty per cent, on every claim secured. Employers 
interviewed on the subject of the use of these audit companies, 
differ in opinions as to their efficiency. Evidence on the one hand 
of their having ''paid for themselves several times over in a year," 
is off-set by testimony to the effect that little or no return is made 
to the firm using them, that carelessness in losing original bills 
of lading is carried occasionally to the point of actual duplicity 
on the part of companies who receive claims not reported and 
that the extensive correspondence involved is more burdensome 
than profitable. It is, however, no part of the Survey's responsi- 
bility to establish a case for or against the efficiency of individual 
audit bureaus but it seems to be evident that this method of 
handling and checking cost of transportation is less efficient than 
using a local expert who can fix original rates correctly and thus 
obviate the tiresome and wasteful collections of claims, with the 
accompanying cost in fees and commissions. 

Actual Economy of Expert Service 

Perhaps the best way of picturing the waste and loss that 
accrues at present in Richmond in handling outgoing and in- 
coming mercantile traffic is to show the positive gain in the work 
of the expert. 

A certain traffic man in a nearby city outside the state re- 
lated an instance of how by careful routing of a large shipment of 
manufactured goods which was sent partly by water and partly 
by rail and so planned as to take advantage of every exception 
provided by the Interstate Commerce Commission, he saved his 
company as much as the value of the shipment which amounted 
to over five hundred dollars. 

Immediate econo7ny. — Several similar- situations described by 
one of the traffic men of Richmond show parallel advantages of 
expert work in solving transportation problems. He found that in 
certain cases it was cheaper to send a shipment of goods to Cin- 
cinnati and then back to Indiana in reaching some of the southern 
towns of Indiana than to ship directly south since interstate rates 
per hundred pounds are several cents cheaper than intrastate 
rates. 

If the shipper in Richmond were to telephone the local freight 
office and ask how to send a shipment to New Orleans, the rail- 
road agent would answer, ninety-nine times out of a hundred, 
that it should go through Cincinnati, whereas, better arrange- 



Chaa*. XVIIJ Mekcantile Traffic 1^01 

ments both in speed and cost can often be made by sending to 
Louisville, Kentucky, and then south by a different road. Ques- 
tions of cost of transfer from one road to another must be consid- 
ered also in planning a route. 

Not many people know that in shipping to Minnesota it is 
cheaper to use a number of local lines with local rates than to use 
the through-route rate. In order to get this advantage, however, 
it is necessary to appeal to the Interstate Commerce Commission 
and request that this division be extended, since ordinarily the 
rate that holds is the published through-route rate. During a year 
such schemes of the expert in saving amount to many thousands 
of dollars. 

Ultimate economy. — On the other hand, it may be found better 
salesmanship, and cheaper in the long run, to use the more direct 
if more costly systems of transportation, than to allow a consign- 
ment to proceed slowly for the sake of immediate cheapness. 
For instance it takes six weeks to float a shipment around the 
guK across the Panama and the Pacific to western points. The 
cheapness of such a route may be more than off-set by the length 
of time it requires. 

Constructive Suggestions 
For Increased Efficiency in Handling Mercantile Traffic 

Summary of wasteful methods. — A company is not keeping its 
over-head expenses down or properly accounting for expenditures, 
if there is no adequate systematic concern given to the problems 
of shipping. It has been shown in this report that the only tightly 
welded system which is proof against leakage is that of handling 
incoming and outgoing shipments through an expert. Mistakes 
in packing and labeling are costly; claims are hard to establish; 
regulations and exceptions are difficult to know. The railroads 
have neither time or equipment to give unlimited service to the 
solution of private problems of shipping and it is unfair to demand 
that they should. Audit companies are costly of time, attention 
and money. It is bad salesmanship on the part of a company to 
accept no responsibility for the consignee. Therefore, it would 
seem that the business men of Richmond need expert service to 
aid in solving problems of mercantile traffic in such a way that 
both incoming and outgoing consignments would be handled 
with clear cut efficiency and with the minimum waste of time and 
money. 



302 OcCUl'ATiONAL INFORMATION [PaRT II 

City traffic man. — Small shippers, firms which only deliver 
goods within a zone of a hundred miles and retail stores, all declare 
and with truth, that it would not pay them to retain trajfic ex- 
perts for their small volume of shipping. If this be true of in- 
dividual firms, there remains the possibility of co-operation in 
engaging the services of one expert who would devote his time to 
solving the usual problems of transportation. Small shippers of 
each firm, would be able to obtain, at small expense, accurate 
technical information and advice. This might be done by follow- 
ing the plan provided in other cities of maintaining a traffic man 
in the City Chamber of Commerce who might be called upon at 
any time to handle special problems of routing, who would be an 
expert tariff reader; who could give regulations about packing 
and weighing and who might be the source of information of all 
kinds. The large responsibilities of such a position would place 
it in the field of professional work and give the expert the dignity 
of a confidential adviser who held the transactions of the indi- 
vidual firms as professional memoranda. 

The work of an expert is important not oaly from the stand- 
point of efficient service to the firms requiring it, but from that of 
the efficiency of each shipping clerk. The employee in each firm 
could do his work much more accurately and advance farther 
into the knowledge of systematic methods of shipment, if there 
were a superior officer ready to advise him on questionable points 
and give him accurate ratings so as to assist him in better serving 
those who are buying the product of the firm. 

For Training for Occupations in Mercantile TraflB.c 

Two types of training. ^K^ has already been indicated, the 
basic school courses underlying the work of the traffic man and 
shipping clerks are penmanship, reading, business English, business 
arithmetic and commercial geography. Direct training in trans- 
portation service seems to divide itself into two main groups; 
technical knowledge of tariffs, and general knowledge of the prob- 
lem of mercantile traffic. The first is specialized and valuable 
only to the few individuals who may become traffic men. It can 
be gained through university extension courses taken in con- 
nection with actual work. This study is too intricate and tech- 
nical to be offered in high school and could never be given success- 
fully as a vocational course to those not yet engaged in work, 
since they could not possibly grasp the details nor acquire the 
technique involved without an experience basis. 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Tkaffic 303 

But a general knowledge of the problems in mercantile traffic 
is useful not only to the shipping clerk, of whom there is at least 
one in every large factory or wholesale house, but to the average 
boy or girl who is going into business, since the sore need for 
greater and more widespread intelligence in handling commodi- 
ties has been demonstrated. 

Content of school courses. — Every student in commercial 
classes who expects to go into business, ought to know certain 
definite things about traffic. In addition, he ought to be familiar 
with sources of further information and with methods of finding 
out whatever in the future he may need to know. On the basis 
of about twenty-five interviews with men engaged in traffic 
work, the Survey is able to suggest definitely the content of such 
a general course of instruction. 

General facts about the world's markets and industries in the United 
States. Study of maps and main lines of transportation. 

List of maps published : 

Cost of Transportation : 

Elements which determine cost 

How fixed 

Work of Interstate Commerce Commission 

What determines classifications : 
Bulk 
Weight 
Value 
Fragility 
Nature of the article 

What determines rates : 

"What the traffic will bear," theory 
Distance, element and differentials 
Classification 

How to secure tariff ratings : 
Interurban car 
Parcel Post 
Freight 
Express 
Lake, river, canal and coastwise traffic 

Advantages between various kinds of carriers such as 



Railroad 
Waterway 
Express 
Interurban 
Motor truck 



Convenience 
Cheapness 
From the standpoint of \ Speed 
Safety 



304 Occupational Information [Part II 

What determines selection of one line of carriers as compared with 
another: 
Directions 
Transfer point 
Terminal facilities 
Differences in rate combinations 

Relations of packing to transportation : 

Regulations : 

General character 
Where to find them 

Elements to consider: 

Cheapness 

Careful handling 
Methods of packing : 

Knocked down 

Crated 

Uncrated 

Nested 

Boxed 

Kind of car used 
Methods of loading and hauling : 

Carload 

Less than carload 
Preparation of forms : 

Addressing 

Ticketing 

Bill of lading 

Shipping order 

Memoranda 
Receipts: 

Freight 

Express 

Parcel Post 
Insurance: 
Definition of terms : 

C.O.D. 

F.O.B. shipping point 

F.O.B. destination 
Claims : 

Contract entered into when sending shipment 

Proper grounds of making claims 

Delay 

Overcharge 

Damage 



Method of preferring claims 
Auditing freight bills 



Chap. XVII] Mercantile Traffic 305 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The Survey Committee concurs with the recommendations 
of the Survey Staff that every student in commercial classes who 
expects to go into business as an office worker, salesperson or 
railroad employee should receive definite instruction concerning 
mercantile traffic and transportation as outlined in this report. 
The Richmond Board of Education is urged to make provision 
for this work as a part of the commercial department of the high 
school. 

For those already employed in Richmond including store 
proprietors, shipping clerks or traffic men, evening school exten- 
sion courses in traffic problems are recommended by the Survey 
Committee. The Richmond Board of Education cannot meet this 
need as no teacher is available. This need for extension work is 
called to the attention of the extension divisions of Indiana and 
Purdue Universities, with the hope that provision may be made 
for correspondence and evening courses in Mercantile Traffic. 

The Survey also indicates the need for the employment of an 
expert traffic man, whose services might be available for all merch- 
ants and manufacturers in the city. This need is referred 
to the Richmond Commercial Club. 

The Survey Committee indicates to the Richmond Public 
Library the need for providing maps, books and pamphlets in the 
field of mercantile traffic, so arranged and cataloged as to be of 
service to shippers, traffic men, shipping clerks, store proprietors 
and students. 



20—5463 



CHAPTER XVIII 



COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT: MERCANTILE 

SALES 

Importance. — In every city or towii there is the constant 
necessity for personal exchange of goods for money. This inter- 
change of commodities constitutes a large proportion of the busi- 
ness of the community. In Richmond, as has been stated in the 
general discussion of the business of the city, retail trade is one of 
the chief sources of the city's wealth. Being the county seat and 
situated on the main lines of interurban and steam railroad trans- 
portation, Richmond is the shopping center of the county. 

Number of stores and employees. — In Richmond, there are about 
290 mercantile establishments, giving employment to about 600 
males and 250 female salespersons, 300 deliverymen and boys, 
and 150 janitors. 

Types of stores. — The speciality stores have been chosen as 
the basis for the study of salesmanship rather than the depart- 
ment store which in previous surveys has been made the basic 
ground for study. The range in type of salesmanship required 
in the different speciality shops has given rise to the contention 
that an analysis of the work of a counterbound salesperson in a 
department store cannot be typical of the whole field. There 
remains also the fact that there are hundreds of specialty stores 
to one department store and that the tendency of recent years is 
toward greater specialization in this, as in other lines of mercantile 
sales. 

Character of Employment in Richmond 

Classification of salespersons. — In Richmond everyone engaged 
in mercantile business is a salesperson except those in delivery 
and building service. Not only girls behind the counter but 
proprietors and floor men and women concern themselves directly 
with selling in addition to their other duties. Therefore, it is 
not possible to group workers in mercantile trade according to 
such clear cut classifications as hold for similar studies in Cleve- 

(307) 



308 Occupational Information [Part II 

land, Minneapolis and Richmond, Virginia, which suggest that 
merchandizing positions are divided into stockkeeper, general 
salesperson, specialty salespersons, bargain salespersons, assist- 
ant buyers, buyers and auxiliary positions such as that of 
floor men and messenger girl. In Richmond the buyer of one 
day may act as floor man the next, or the salesperson may also 
be required to take the place of stockkeeper, while, except 
during the Christmas holidays when extra workers are employed, 
there are neither specialty, bargain salespersons nor messengers. 
With such overlapping of duties in mind, however, it is possible 
to classify workers in Richmond mercantile stores as execu- 
tives, heads of departments, floor directors, buyers and sales- 
persons. In only one store all five separate divisions of workers 
were found. 

Inter-department work — Work required of employees in any of 
the stores studied in Richmond is much more general than in the 
large department stores described in the above mentioned Survey 
reports. The salesperson does not sell one kind of merchandise 
only nor attend to one counter only, but must be able to sell any 
article in the store and frequently does so, when the store is 
crowded or at noon when some of the clerks are at luncheon. 
This is an important characteristic of sales work in Richmond. 
It thwarts any scheme of inter-departmental promotion because 
differences between work in departments tend to be levelled down 
if anyone can sell anything. It must, however, be remembered 
that each salesperson knows one department better than another, 
has certain specified duties and looks after only one kind of stock; 
also that almost every kind of store has a few departments where 
wares are of so special a character as to require the exclusive at- 
tention of certain salespersons. Nevertheless, it is the rule that 
general duties are required of the majority of salespersons in 
Richmond. 

Opportunities as compared with large cities. — Because of this 
general work expected of every salesperson, the experience of 
every individual is broader than it is in stores where each worker 
is clamped to one counter or to a section of one counter whose 
narrow borders constitute their entire business outlook. On the 
other hand, where departments are not clearly defined, promotion 
consists only of receiving increase in salary or of becoming a buyer, 
for which there is in the largest establishment about one chance in 
twenty. Probably this accounts for the fact that many sales- 



CHAr. XVlll] ' Mekcantile Sales oOO 

people who feel that they have learned a certain retail trade, 
leave their employment to set up a business for themselves. 
This increase in the number of individual firms in each line, such 
as the grocery or millinery business, further tends to restrict the 
possibilities of growth of any one firm and render impossible the 
introduction of new departments, positions or higher salaries. 

The scope of salesmanship. — The fifteen different stores dis- 
cussed in this report are representative of retail business. This 
is but one branch, however, of the entire field of selling. There 
are many varieties of sales work not included in this study; the 
agent who is in charge of a sales room where pianos or automobiles 
are displayed but where no stock is kept; the commission man who 
buys and sells for a producing or wholesale house; the auctioneer 
who sells merchandise under the hammer for whatever he may get ; 
and the salesman traveling for a factory, who covers a certain 
district selling to jobbers or bidding for contracts, are not 
included. 

The work of the traveling salesman is deserving of serious 
study. He represents his company whose product and methods 
are made tangible to the consumer only through his ability and 
personality and with the price list and catalogs he carries. This 
salesman plans his own schedule of work and to some extent his 
itinerary; he must figure discounts to his customer and be able to 
tell him the cost of transporting the consignment. On his ability 
to please the customer, represent his house and to record the order 
exactly, depends his success. When one considers that Richmond 
alone has at least a dozen industries which employ sales repre- 
sentatives, some idea may be gathered of the nation-wide possi- 
bilities in this field. 

The scope of this study. — In order to obtain an accurate picture 
of the extent, variety a ad degree of specialization in mercantile 
sales and the knowledge and skill required in these fields, the 
Survey analyzed selling occupations in the following stores: 



3 


Grocery 




2 


Millinery 


3 


Meat 




2 


Five and Ten Cent 


1 


Confectionery 




2 


Furniture 


2 


Drug 






Jewelry 


1 


Cigar and Tobacco 






Florist 


4 


Dry Goods and Fur 


nishings 




Book and Stationery 


1 


Shoe 






Hardware 


1 


Men's Furnishing 






Wholesale Dry Goods 



310 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



Occupations studied. — The work of the salespersons is the chief 
subject of this chapter. Executive positions, at one end of the 
scale, and delivery service at the other, were treated only in re- 
lation to selling, while office positions are included in Chapter XX, 
^'Office Service." 

Basis of discussion. — Each kind of store is here treated sep- 
arately because the chief differentiation in opportunity and educa- 
tional content between the work of salespersons in different Unes 
of business is the commodity sold. Therefore, there can be no 
grouping of specialty shops which sell commodities having no 
similarity to each other. 



Types of Stores and Salespersons 


Employed 


Type 


Number of Stores 


Salespersons 


Delivery 
Force 


Other 


of 
Establish- 
ment 


In City 


Report- 
ing 


Males 


Females 




Males 


Employees 


Grocery 

Meat .... 


74 
19 

8 

4 

22 

10 

16 

8 

10 
9 

2 

7 
b 


39 
5 

8 

2 

8 

4 

9 
4 

8 
S 

2 
5 
5 


67 
11 

20 

9 

28 

11 

47 

27 

20 

5 

38 

9 


12 

6 
2 

1 

6 

91 
5 

2 
39 

38 
2 
3 


38 
9 

10 

2 

6 




Meat Cutters 


Bakery (not 
analyzed) . . . 

Confectionery . 
Drug 


Bakers and 

Wrappers 
Waiters, 
Cooks and 
Dishwashers 
Pharmacists 


Cigar and To- 
bacco 


Soda Foun- 
tain Help 


Dry Goods and 

Furnishings . . 

Shoe 


7 
3 




Cobblers and 


Mens' Furnish- 
ing". 


Bootblacks 


Millinery 

Five and Ten 
Cent. 


Apprentices 
and Helpers 


Furniture 

Jewelry 


8 
I 


Repairmen 



Chap. XVIII] 



Mercantile Sales 



311 



Type 

of 

Establish- 

mnet 



Number of Stores 


Salesp 


>ersons 


Delivery 
Force 


In City 


Report- 
ing 


Males 


Females 


Males 



Other 
Employees 



Florist. 



Books and Sta 
tionery 

Musical Instru- 
ments (not 
analyzed) . . 

Theatre (not 
analyzed) . 

Fuel and Lum- 
ber (not ana- 
lyzed) .... 

Office Sales (not 
analyzed) . 

Real Estate and 
Insuran ce 

(not analyzed) 

Retail and 

Wholesale 
Hardware . . . 

Wholesale Pro- 
duce (not an- 
alyzed) 

Wholesa 1 e 
Leather (not 
analyzed) . . . 

Wholesale Dry 
Goods 

Wholesale Gro- 
ceries (not 
analyzed) . . . 

Factory Sales 
Force (not 
analyzed) . . . 

Total 



2 
6 

6 
16 

17 



16 



280 



1 
4 

6 
16 

17 



16 



188 



15 

27 

32 



3 
13 

20 

45 
536 



221 



39 

12 



171 



Greenhouse 
Men and La- 
borers 

PaperHangers 



Tuners ^ 

Moving Pic- 
ture Machine 
Operators 



Advertising 
Agents 
Proprietors 
form the 
largest 
group 

Repairmen 



Repairmen 
Operators 



312 Occupational Infobmation [Part II 

1. The Large Grocery Store 

Large and small stores. — The work of the large grocery store 
mchides every problem presented by the small store, except that 
in the latter the proprietor has more responsibility and the 
question of buying is more difficult although narrower. The store 
studied has twenty-one employees, seven of whom are in the de- 
livery force and twelve are regular salespersons. 

The scope. — There are seventy-nine grocery stores in Rich- 
mond, employing about one hundred salespersons and forty de- 
liverymen. The size of the field is said to be deceptive in its 
suggestion of opportunity, inasmuch as there are no available 
facts about the number of stores which are operating at a profit, 
and inasmuch as the number of employees per store is small. 

Store organization. — Each employee has certain special tasks 
and certain general duties which together constitute a program 
whose main order is unchanging from day to day and for which 
he is responsible to no one but the manager or proprietor of the 
store. All salespersons use the same printed froms in taking orders 
and the cash register for ringing up sales. 

System of orders: Customer in store.— The customer is received 
by the floor walker by whom he is directed to a disengaged clerk. 
Special information about stock is secured by the clerk from men 
in charge of special stock. The sales slip is made out if the order 
is to be delivered and if a charge sale the slip is given the cashier 
for filing. If the customer makes a cash purchase, the clerk simply 
adds the bill and gives cash to cashier for each register, or, in her 
absence, rings up the sale himself. If it is a charge sale, the clerk 
rings up the sale and files the charge slip on the cashier's spindle. 

System of orders: Telephone order. — The telephone order is 
usually taken by one of three girls, but if they are busy, by anyone 
else in the store. The order is hastily written in the order book 
while the customer talks, or if the book is not there, a memorandum 
is scribbled on scratch pad. Later the customer's name and ad- 
dress are written, the date, the amounts extended and the clerk's 
name signed. The slip is filed on the desk. Clerks assemble 
orders and place them in the delivery boxes. The sales slip copy is 
filed back on the same desk. One slip is sent to the customer with 
the order. Whan orders are ready they are checked and slips are 
marked ''delivered." Slips of delivered orders are stamped with 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 313 

deliveryman's name and number, and filed on the cashier's desk 
for posting. Items are posted on the customer's bill and, after 
a week or month, statements are mailed to customer. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

General duties. — Every employee in this grocery store is sup- 
posed to keep busy constantly if he expects to make good. As 
indicated by the system outlined above each clerk, when not other- 
wise engaged, must wait on customers who enter the store, and 
must answer the telephone if those specially assigned to this work 
are busy. Assembling grocery orders is another general duty. 
Order slips are taken off the file just as they come, are assembled, 
each in its wooden box. The clerk signs his initials to tha slip 
and files it on another spindle at the desk. Helping to keep the 
store in order also devolves upon everyone. 

Special knowledge required. — The common body of knowledge 
which every salesperson must have includes fiz^st how to approach 
the customer and detemine his desire; how to take orders; to sug- 
gest purchases and to discover without direct question what price 
of goods is desired. All this is really a study of the psychology 
of the customer plus the possession of an agreeable, businesslike 
manner and a good vocabulary. Second, the salesperson must 
know the goods carried by the grocery, — this means a broad fam- 
iliarity with the entire range of stock and its accompanying price 
list. The more thorough and accurate this information, the 
more efficient is the salesperson. In this kind of business the 
content of special knowledge is very rich. It covers: Names of 
brands of all canned and bottled goods and the source of these 
goods as well as of fish, fruits, vegetables, bakery goods 
and staples. This means being able to trace the commodity 
from its natural source, through its processes of preparation and 
transportation. Indeed, the clerk ought to know every step in 
the long progress from mother earth to the ultimate consumer! 
A salesperson must also know the '^talking point" of each article; 
advantages of one line of goods over another; prices and reasons 
for differences in price, and new and specially featured goods. 
Some indication of the vast detail in stock information may be 
obtained from considering that there are fourteen kinds of crackers 
handled in this store, about each of which the salesmen ought to 
know; where the flour comes from; where the cracker is made; 
how put up in tins; its price and its relative merit as compared with 



314 Occupational Information [Part II 

other crackers. The clerk ought to be able to inform the customer 
about methods of preserving perishable goods and how to serve 
relishes and delicatessens. In certain departments, it is an asset 
for a clerk to know something about the preparation of the goods 
he is selling. 

Special skill required. — Purely manual work in a grocery store 
consists of handling commodities and wrapping packages; there- 
fore, no special skill is required of salespersons in the grocery 
business except the man who handles the mechanical devices, 
such as meat cutters. He should have manual deftness and me- 
chanical ability. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl= 
edge consisting of how to approach the customers, and stock 
information, may be acquired on the job. In addition to ex- 
perience in handling the commodities sold, salespersons are urged, 
in this particular store, to read trade journals for which the pro- 
prietor subscribes. Some information on specialty goods, is also 
gathered from the sales agents who come from large producers to 
advertise their line of wares. The employer gives his salespeople 
a written examination in merchandise every few months. He care- 
fully grades the examination returns. The results are shown to 
the force and the effect is thought stimulating to the clerk, and 
indicative to the employer of the degree of interest held by them, 
although there is neither direct reward or penalty for good or poor 
papers. Besides trade journals, there is some printed material 
available for this group of workers of which are suggested, 'The 
Grocers' Encyclopedia'' — W. H. Wiley Publishing Company; 
''Spices and How to Know Them"— W. M. Gibbs; "What the 
Grocer Sells Us" — Faeker. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Since about sixty per 
cent, of the grocery business is carried on over the telephone, 
which must be answered by each salesperson every day, accurate 
hearing and a good voice are essential for this work. Color dis- 
crimination is needed by those clerks who have charge of counters 
and window display. A pleasing appearance is necessary here as 
in all sales positions. Physical energy is necessary to enable the 
worker to jump from one thing to another, as the salesperson is 
required to do in this business, where orders must be out on time 
and customers not allowed to wait. 

General education required. — Although the salesperson in the 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 315 

grocery store needs at least an elementary school education and 
although the employers state their preference for high school 
graduates, success depends more upon a special knowledge of 
merchandise than upon general knowledge. Penmanship, elemen- 
tary arithmetic and good spoken English are essential prere- 
quisites. 

Promotion. — Because of the fact that the organization of the 
grocery store is very simple, with more general than depart- 
mental activity and knowledge, opportunities for promotion of 
the salesperson are limited. Increase in salary and development 
of a special responsibility is all that is possible, unless the worker 
has capital enough to purchase a share in the business. 

Source and selection of workers.- — Places in sales work are 
filled most often by direct application, although sometimes by 
promotion from the delivery force. Workers are selected by in- 
terviews to determine fitness, which depends upon previous 
experience, personality and education. When engaged, the new 
employee is on probation for the first week or ten days. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Work in the store studied is 
not seasonable. The schedule of hours is regular. Men arrive 
at 6:45 a. m. and girls an hour later. Closing hour is 6:15 p. m. for 
the men and 6:00 p. m. for the girls. On Friday all the men stay 
until 9:15 p. m., to arrange stock. Saturday closing hour is 10:15 
p. m. There is often overtime when customers are late in enter- 
ing the store or in telephoning orders. Extra hours of work are 
not paid for directly but recorded by a time clock, and "time off" 
is given on a basis of one and a half times as much. A few of the 
deliverymen are not regularly employed but work when called 
and are paid by the hour. 

Hazards and' inherent character of the 7rork. — There are no haz- 
ards in this work but it requires longer hours and more standing 
than most retail stores. 

Wages. — ^The average wage in this store for men is twelve to 
fifteen dollars a week with a maximum of twenty dollars. For 
girls the average is nine dollars per week. 

The Salesperson on Outside Orders 

What the worker does. — Two salesmen, in addition to their 
regular work, take orders from customers who have no telephones, 



316 Occupational Information [Part II 

and from hotels and restaurants. Orders are taken in the same 
way as from customers in the store. The order men go out early 
in the morning with their order books to meet the customers 
personally and then return to the store for regular work. 

Special knowledge required. — Success in this work depends upon 
the extent of the salespersons' information about the stock and the 
degree to which he has memorized it, since he carries no price 
list or catalogs. He must know quality and range of his stock 
and all new purchases, in order to suggest possibilities to the 
buyer. He must know wholesale and retail prices very thoroughly 
in order to give exact information to the buyer, and, in the case 
of hotels, to arrange favorable bargains on a wholesale basis. 
For this he must know how far he can go in taking liberties with 
the regular wholesale list price. This work requires a more pleas- 
ing personality than does the work in the store. The man who 
goes to the restaurant, frequently has to meet competition with 
other grocery men and he must be quick of wit and ingenuous, 
and have technical knowledge of the substances used in the prepa- 
ration of foods. 

The Salesperson on Display Work 

What the ivorker does.- — Three salesmen in this firm are re- 
sponsible for the decoration and arrangement of the store. One 
decorates the window using a new scheme e\^ery week; one has 
charge of street stands which have to be freshly arranged every 
day; and one has charge of the counters which have to be planned 
every week and arranged every day in accordance with the plan 
adopted. 

Special knowledge required. — The most important decorations 
are for the windows, as these are the best medium of advertising 
new goods and specialties. The windows must be uniquely 
arranged in order to attract attention and appealing enough to 
rhnch the customer's impulse to buy. The salesman in charge of 
the windows must be in touch w^ith the advertising schemes of 
companies selling special foods, inasmuch as these companies 
provide advertising material upon request. When this study 
was made one side window decoration advertised a certain brand 
of beans, and a short time previous the window decoration had 
caused a sensation in the town. It had been made into a minia- 
ture pen where a number of tiny live pigs disposed themselves in 
straw or rooted in a small trough. At the other end of the window 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 317 

was a great show of hams and rashers of bacon, while the entire 
exhibit bore the attracting legend, 'Trom Pen to Platter." The 
display features of sidewalk stands and of the counters and interior 
of the store, do not require such ingenuity or such a degree of artis- 
tic taste, but merely a sense of neatness and order and a knowledge 
of what new goods ought to be featured. 

The Salesperson on Special Work 

What the worker does. — Other special phases of work in this store 
are the care of the special lines of commodities such as the bottled 
and canned goods, the refrigerator stuff and mechanical devices 
for cutting meat and grinding coffee. All goods have to be 
ordered and arranged, and perishable stock kept at the right, 
temperature. The mechanical devices must be sharpened, 
adjusted and operated. One salesman is entirely responsible for 
their care. 

Special information required.— K complete knowledge of the 
special stock handled is the first essential. There are twelve entirely 
different brands of canned corn and a dozen varieties of grape 
juice. Each brand of olives has a range of price from ten cents 
to one dollar and fifty cents. They are sold in the can, in bulk 
and in glass. They may be plain, ripe or stuffed, and, if the latter, 
the stuffing may be almonds, pimentos, cheese or olive. The 
special salesperson must be in close touch with jobbers and pro- 
ducers in order to suggest the introduction of new varieties of stock. 
The salesman must know at what temperature to keep perishable 
stuff, and what are their lasting qualities. The refrigerator man 
must understand the regulation of hedt and cold, and the man in 
charge of mechanical devices must know how to set them up, regu- 
late, clean and adjust them. 

2. The Small Grocery Store 

What the worker does. — The proprietor is one of the regular 
sales workers in the small grocery store. He does all buying and 
ordering and attends to the bookkeeping; he is responsible for select- 
ing and directing all employees; he waits on customers and takes 
part in every activity of the store from banking to ''sweeping 
out." The other salesmen assist the proprietor and do practically 
what the workers in the large grocery store do, but since there 
are fewer employed, there is scarcely any speciahzation. They are 



318 Occupational Information [Part II 

entirely responsible for recording their sales and are permitted to 
buy in retail small quantities of stuff in order to complete a 
customer's purchase. 

Special knowledge required. — The knowledge required in such a 
store is not different in character from that expected of clerks in a 
larger establishment. More initiative and general knowledge of 
business, however, is needed by the clerk in the smaller store, 
because the proprietor is more dependent upon the quantity 
and quality of service from each employee. 

Promotion. — It is even more difficult for the salesperson in a 
smaller store than in a large store to advance because the wage 
scale must necessarily be low, and if there is no departmental 
division, there is no possible step between the proprietor and the 
salesperson. 

Seasonahleness and hours. — Hours of work are longer in the small 
store. Overtime is not paid and there is so much work to be done 
that the worker is on his feet practically all day. Employment 
in continuous throughout the year, but there are times when 
pressure of work is not great. 

3. The Meat Shop 

The scope. — There are nineteen meat shops in Richmond, only 
one of which was studied for this report. In the majority of stores 
the proprietor performs all the important work and the employee 
merely assists him. 

Shop organization. — In the shop studi d, the proprietor left 
the retail business entirely to the salespeople because he devoted 
his entire time to the abattoir, buying and directing the butchering 
and hanging, which is performed by eight or ten employees. In 
the retail store there is only the sales department which includes 
accounting for money transactions through cash register records, 
and the deUvery departments, although there is some overlapping 
inasmuch as delivery boys, when not on the wagons, help in the 
store. 

The Salesman 

What the worker does. — He cuts all meats, prepares fowls, 
buys meats, reports to the proprietor when supplies are low and 
buys canned and packed goods, waits on customers, wraps pack- 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 319 

ages for delivery, takes telephone orders, records sales and charges 
on the cash register, and keeps charge accounts in the ledger. 

Special knowledge required. — No salesperson would be of the 
slightest value in this store unless he knew cuts of meat. This 
means, first of all, a thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the 
animal butchered. He must know along what bones and muscles 
to cut for various results. To trim meats, he must know what 
parts are useless for edible purposes, and what may be saved to 
make lard and soup. He must be familiar with the difference 
between the appearance of tough and tender meat. It is obvious, 
therefore, that the meat salesman must have a rudimentary knowl- 
edge of cooking meats, especially since customers often, either ask 
for what they want in turns of the carving process ('Tind me a 
nice roast of lamb," or, ^'I want a good boiling piece") or they 
ask the salesman who recommends a certain cut, ''How do I cook 
this?" He must also know the process of preparing packed meat 
and the differences of various brands. He must know how to 
hang meats for a certain degree of tenderness, how to prepare 
fowls and sausage for the consumer, and at what temperature var- 
ious meats should be kept. It is interesting to note, however, 
that a man may be a good salesman without knowing about 
butchering. This requires a different sort of knowledge and 
skill. 
■ In addition, the salesman must understand the use of the cash 
register, the best methods of taking orders over the telephone and 
how to suggest purchases to the customer. 

Special skill required. — Skill in handling the knives used in 
cutting, so that the cut will be clean and smooth is required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Knowledge of 
meat cuts and skill in using the knife is only learned on the job. 
Delivery boys who help in the store are gradually taught by the 
salesman. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Observation, memory and 
accuracy are needed for success in this work. 

General educational requirements. — Reading, writing, and simple 
arithmetic are needed for writing down telephone orders, address- 
,. ing envelopes and using the cash register. 

5.:C.. Promotion. — Salesmen may receive increased salary and 
responsibility as business increases but no other {)romotion is 
possible. 



320 Occupational Information [Pabt II 

Source and selection of workers. — The salesman is selected 
from among personal applicants for work. They are -first given 
trial in the delivery service and other jobs about the store. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Work is continuous throughout 
the year. There is a great deal of overtime for every employee. 
The overtime increases with added responsibility. One salesman 
said he worked from seven a. m. until nine-thirty every night, and 
on Saturday till after midnight in the summer, and on Sunday 
morning as well, in order to make deliveries to customers who 
keep no ice. 

Hazards and inherent character of the work. — The danger of 
cutting the hands with the sharp knives is always present. For 
a shop that is popular, the work is very strenuous since almost 
every sale demands the labor of cutting meats. 

4. The Confectionery Store 

The scope. — There are four confectionery stores aside from 
bakeries and lunch rooms. One of these was studied for the 
Survey. In many cases the proprietor manages the store and 
is on hand almost constantly. No store in Richmond keeps candy 
exclusively. Each store serves ice cream and soft drinks, and 
in the winter, in addition, hot bouillon, oysters, coffee and choco- 
late. Therefore, salespersons in such stores can scarcely be 
distinguished from waiters and waitresses in lunch and tea rooms. 

Store organization. — In the store studied the majority of 
workers were proprietors, but there were four salespersons in 
addition to one deliveryman and those who do the cleaning. The 
store has also a wholesale department which is entirely managed 
by the proprietors. The proprietors do all the buying. Buying 
for the confectionery store is not as complicated as for many other 
stores because changes in fashion affect the situation so slightly. 

The Salesperson 

What the worker does. — The salesperson in this store has work 
similar to that of the soda fountain clerk; she takes orders from 
customers for creams and drinks, mixes and serves them and 
washes dishes and glasses. In addition to selling candy and 
taking orders over the telephone, the salesmen are responsible 
for keeping the salesroom in immaculate order. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 321 

Special knowledge required. — Knowledge of stock is less com- 
plicated in this business than in almost any other. It involves 
merely knowing where candies and creams come from, how they 
are made and their ingredients, and being familiar with the entire 
list of drinks advertised, syrups and creams on hand, how to 
mix them according to the simple receipts in stock, how to use 
the electric devices for mixing egg drinks, and how to serve them 
and what price to charge. 

Special skill required, — The mixing of syrups and squeezing of 
lemons without spilling anything requires considerable skill and 
dexterity. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special 
knowledge and skill are acquired on the job by instructions from 
the employer. 

Mental and physical characteristics. — Such work requires 
memory, because in waiting on the table the salesperson must 
remember the entire list of drinks and dishes as well as the order 
given. Neatness is especially essential in handling foodstuffs. 
Salespersons, and all others who handle foods and drinks, are 
required by the State Law to pass a physical examination. 

General educational requirements. — Reading, writing and 
elementary arithmetic are the only requisites of such work. One 
salesgirl reported that she was a high school graduate. 

Promotion. — There is no possible promotion. 

Source and selection of workers. — Permanent work is frequently 
given to salespeople employed in selling Christmas novelties, 
but all employment is made through direct appUcation. 

Seasonable ness and overtime. — The work is continuous through- 
out the season. Salespeople work in shifts, morning, afternoon 
and evening, which means some days long hours at a stretch. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — ^One worker reported 
a complaint that long hours of incessant serving was extremely 
tiresome. 

Wages. — The weekly wage for sales work is five dollars. 

21—5563 



322 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

5. The Drug Store 

The scope. — There are twenty-two drug stores in Richmond, 
the largest of which has five employees besides the two proprietors. 
The other stores have only one or two employees except in summer 
when an extra worker is engaged to handle the soda fountain. 
Two drug stores were studied. 

Store organization. — The work of the average drug store is 
, divided into ''three parts/' the pharmacy, retail sales, and soda 
water fountain. The pharmacist is also the executive and he 
and the soda water fountain clerk, with the addition of a general 
employee, attend to all sales. This complicates the discussion 
of the drug store in a chapter on sales work since selling alone 
plays only a minor part. The large store with its exceptional 
organization has a wholesale department, in addition, which re- 
quires the employment of two boys for packing a ad delivering, 
and an office worker for keeping books, typing invoices and orders 
and filing. The small store studied had only one employee on 
part time for general sales with the addition in the summer of 
a fountain clerk. 

The Pharmacist 

What the worker does. — The pharmacist prepares all prescrip- 
tions, sells all drugs, sells anything in stock to customers, does all 
buying, keeps books and fixes prices, banks money, organizes 
store system, hires and discharges employees, trims windows and 
plans the arrangement of stock. 

Special knowledge required. — The pharmacist must pass the 
state examinations and fulfill the legal requirements for experience 
and education. In addition he must be a good business man 
and accountant. 

The Soda Fountain Clerk 

What the worker does. — The soda fountain clerk serves ice 
cream, mixes soft drinks and ice cream dainties, and washes 
utensils. He reports when supplies are low, and sometimes makes 
other sales. 

Special knowledge required. — Strength is required in moving 
the heavy five-gallon cans of ice cream, and, for this reason, 
girls are not employed at the counter. Neatness and speed in 
serving and in cleaning are equally essential. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 323 

The Salesman 

What the worker does. — The salesman helps the proprietor 
to unpack and tag all incoming goods and arrange stock on the 
store shelves and wareroom shelves. He makes sales of tobacco, 
toilet goods, writing materials, candies and such standard drugs 
as cod-liver oil, quinine pills and patent medicines, but is not 
allowed to touch any questionable substances or to put up a 
prescription; the latter in fact would be an illegal procedure. 

Special knowledge required. — What the Minneapolis Survey 
study of department store work outlines in regard to what the 
person selling toilet goods and writing paper ought to know to 
understand the stock thoroughly, would apply equally well to 
the drug store salesman. He must know just where to draw the 
line between what he can and cannot legitimately sell. 

Special skill required. — The only skill required is that which is 
required in doing up packages. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The knowledge 
necessary is acquired on the job. 

Mental and physical requirements. — No special mental or 
physical qualities are necessary but neatness of appearance is 
advantageous. 

General educational requirements. — Reading, writing and rudi- 
mentary arithmetic are sufficient to perform the work involved. 
As a matter of fact, this drug store like most others, employs 
for part time and Saturday work, boys who are attending high 
schools or college, because they are thought to be the most in- 
telligent and worth while workers possible to secure on a part- 
time basis. 

Promotion. — There is no promotion possible unless the sales- 
man studies to be a pharmacist. This sometimes occurs, but 
not often. This work is valuable for helping put boys through 
school and for testing out individual interest and bent toward 
salesmanship or pharmacy. 

Source and selection of workers. — The workers are selected 
through the public school and by direct application. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — During the winter these boys 
work only after school and in the evening. There is no definite 



324 Occupational Information [Part II 

schedule of hours but the boys are not kept late. In the summer 
they are engaged the entire day. The salesman's hours are very 
long. 

Wages. — The weakly wage is five dollars for sales work. 

6. Cigar and- Tobacco Store 

The scope. — There are twenty-two Cigar and Tobacco stores 
in Richmond, in each of which the proprietor has all responsibility 
and does a large percentage of the actual work. They are assisted 
by one or perhaps two emploj^ees. Tobacco is also sold in most 
drug stores and in all hotel lobbies. The tobacco store represented 
in this study includes also a soda fountain. 

Store organization. — The proprietor who does all buying, 
advertisement and managing; three salesmen who sell only 
tobacco, two boys at the fountain and one part-time worker for 
errands and substitute work, constitute the working force. 

The Salesman 

What the worker does. — The salesman sells tobacco to customers, 
unpacks stock and arranges it, and keeps the store in order. 

Special knowledge required. — Knowledge of stock consists of 
familiarit}^ with the names and characteristics of all brands of 
tobacco of which there are about thirty handled by this store. 
He has to know where the tobacco comes from and where cigars 
and cigarettes are made. He must also know whether a brand 
of tobacco is mild or strong, whether or not the cigar is a broad 
leaf cigar, of what the filler is made, of what mixture a cigarette 
is made, and whether the tobacco is imported or home grown. 

Special skill required. — No special skill is required except the 
ability to open the case, hand over the package and make change. 

General educational requirements. — Reading and elementary 
arithmetic are the onh' oducativonal requirements. 

Promotion. — The only promotion possible is an increase in 
salary. Only one change was made in two years. 

Source and selection of workers. — The workers are selected by 
interview and trial. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Continuous employment is 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 325 

required. The store is open from six-thirty a. m., until eleven 
p.m. The salespeople work in shifts. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The employer inter- 
viewed said that the danger in this work was a moral one because 
the atmosphere of a store where men loafed about was hardl}' 
a good one for a young man. 

Wages. — Sixteen dollars per week is the avsi'age wage for 
salesmen. 

The Soda Fountain Clerk 

What the worker does. — The fountain clerk also makes cig- 
arette sales. He mixes soft drinks and keeps the fountains and 
utensils clean. 

Special knowledge required. — Receipts for mixing drinks, how 
to make change and how to maintain order and cleanliness are 
essential. 

What the workers lack. — The employer interviewed stated 
that it was very difficult to obtain boys who were both swift and 
neat. Their work lacks the immaculate and shining order desir- 
able. 

Wages. — The weekly wage is eight and ten dollars. 

7. The Dry Goods, Notion and Furnishing Store 

Large and small stores. — The organization of a dry goods and 
furnishing store depends upon its size. In a large city store, the 
work may be highly specialized and salespersons selected accord- 
ing to rigid standards and qualifications in view of specialized 
work to be done and schemes of promotion. But in a city of twen- 
ty-five thousand, store organization must be flexible as selling 
's not highly specialized. 

The scope. — There are sixteen dry goods and general furnish- 
ing stores in Richmond employing about sevent3'-five male and 
one hundred fifty female salespersons, in addition to fifteen men 
in building service. Two stores were studied in detail for this 
Survey, so the discussion is a composite picture of both stores. 
The very small dry goods store was not studied and compared 
with a larger one, as in the case of the grocery store, because it 



326 Occupational Information [Part II 

presents no new phases of salesmanship, being practically the same 
as a department of a dry goods store. 

Store organization. — The workers in dry goods and furnish- 
ing stores may be divided into five groups; executive, sales, office, 
delivery and building service. Only the first two groups are 
treated in this section of the report. The subdivision of the 
sales department depends entirely upon the size of the store. 
One store studied had seven main departments and the other had 
four. The departments in the larger store were as follows: Coat; 
suit and waist; lingerie, infant's wear and white goods; silks and 
trimmings; notions; gloves; stockings and underwear; carpets and 
draperies; linens and wash goods. Each department has at least 
three workers and sometimes six or eight. The forms used in 
recording a sale and the methods of wrapping purchases for 
customers to carry away, or for delivery, are the same in all 
departments. 

Store system of orders. — The sales slip is made in duplicate 
by the sales girl. On the slip must be recorded the amount of 
goods, price per unit, total sale price, sales girl's number and date, 
and, if it is a charge sale, the customer's name and address. Every 
charge or approval sale must be O. K'd. by the proprietor or 
bookkeeper. Both copies of the sales slip are sent with the 
goods to the cashier and wrapper's balcony. The cashier takes 
one copy, foots the extension and makes change. She then files 
the sales slip on a spindle. The wrapper takes one copy, checks 
merchandise, and if correct, wraps it; if not correct, it is returned 
to "the sales girl for correction. The wrapper includes her sales 
slip in the customer's package. At the close of the day, the cashier 
totals the cash received, checking the amount against the sum of 
the accumulated cash sale slips. The cashier turns over, each 
day, all slips to the bookkeeper for his final record of sales by 
departments and employees, and for posting charge accounts. 

Comparative opportunities of men and women in this fi£ld,—As 
mdicated in the Cleveland Survey Report on "Department Store 
Occupations," opportunities for men and women in this field are 
not identical. Differences might be summarized by saying that 
fewer men are needed — only fifty per cent, of the total number 
of dry goods and furnishings salespeople in Richmond are men, 
and that the men have larger opportunities for advancement 
than women — of the executive positions reported to the Richmond 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 327 

Survey, eighty-five per cent, are held by men. Boys: are started 
as salesmen in the leather, draperies, rugs or yard goods depart- 
ments. They are promoted to floor director, to department 
head, or to buyer. Several employers stated that there is a need 
for more men in this field, and that boys do not see the oppor- 
tunities in it and lack the patience to work on a salary of nine 
or ten dollars a week until they thoroughly learn the work. 
Women on the other hand, seem content to remain and work 
for much lower wages. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

General duties. — Every employee in this retail dry goods store 
is required to make sales at every counter, not only in her own 
department, but all other departments. For example, if there 
is no one in the notion department and a number of impatient 
customers are crowding the underwear department, the manager 
or proprietor may take workers from the notion department and 
place them in the congested sections. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge, which consists of two general aspects, knowing how to handle 
customers and knowing the stock *sold, is obtained in this kind 
of business only after employment. The buyer is the main source 
of information about the stock, and, either by weekly talks or by 
informal discussion, he informs each person in his department 
about the line of articles sold. Sales journals are also sources of 
information, though used infrequently. The traveling salesman 
who sell goods on the spot, often talks to clerks in the department 
concerned, giving them points about the commodities he sells. 
Through constant experience in handling, sorting, and examining 
different articles, the observant salesperson learns a great deal. 
Trade journals and periodicals are most profitable sources of trade 
information. 

Mental and physical requirements.— It is difiicult to analyze 
exactly the distinguishing mental and physical characteristics 
in this line of business and almost impossible to determine special 
types of ability for each department. With the exception of 
fitting corsets and gloves, draping silks and serving, there is little 
manual skill required of the salesperson. She must be at- 
tractive, neat in appearance, and possess an agreeable manner 
of address. 



328 Occupational Information [Part II 

General education required. — For this work, it is absolutely 
necessary to have the rudiments of a general education. Good 
penmanship and knowledge of business arithmetic are needed 
in writing sales slips. A good knowledge of English is essen- 
tial to the day's work. Doubtless, high school girls would be 
preferred for this work, if salaries would justify their entering the 
field. At present graduates from the elemenatry schools and the 
country schools are in the majority. 

Promotion. — Because of the general practice already described 
of shifting salespersons from one counter and department to 
another, with the resulting general knowledge of merchandise, 
workers are better prepared to take advantage of new openings 
than are salespersons in the highly specialized department stores 
of large cities. On the other hand, as there are so few changes 
during the year in Richmond stores, the possibilities of advance- 
ment, either within the department or between departments, is 
exceedingly limited. The store of this type in a small city, how- 
ever, is an excellent training school for department store workers 
in a large city. Salary increases are slow and infrequent. The 
buyer's position is in advance of the salesperson, and above the 
buyer is the executive. 

Source and selection of workers. — Although the head of a 
department has something to say about the selection of workers, 
the proprietor always has the final word. Workers are selected 
by personal interview, by which means previous experience and 
education are ascertained. Workers are always engaged upon a 
probation basis. During the Christmas holidays and rush season, 
extra people are taken on in certain departments or for general 
work. If these new workers make good, they are sometimes 
retained, or they are given the first opportunity for permanent 
employment when vacancies occur. 

Reasonableness and overtime. — The salesperson in this type 
of store usually works from eight a. m. to five-thirty p. m. on week 
days, and eight a. m. to nine-thirty p. m. on Saturdays. Work 
is continuous throughout the year and usually there is a vaca- 
tion. Overtime only occurs at invoice periods and no extra re- 
muneration is received for this work. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no hazards 
in dry goods selhng. The work requires considerable standing, 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 329 

and, during the rush hours, workers may be under a nervous 
strain. This strain has never been accurately gauged and varies 
for each individual. 

Wages. — It was found that in a group of thirty-nine sales- 
persons in stores of this type, seventeen received between five and 
six dollars weekly; nine between six and eight dollars; ten between 
eight and ten dollars; and three over ten dollars; the maximum 
being seventeen dollars weekly. 

The Executive 

Most of the interesting and special features of work in such 
establishments are handled by the proprietors. It is the owner 
or manager, who in addition to supervising the organization and 
attending to matter of finances, buys merchandise, writes out 
advertising copy and superintends store and window decoration. 
He is the final arbiter of all questions of any importance and of 
disputes with customers. His relation to the activities of the 
entire store and to the work of his employees is as close as that 
of the department head to his section in a large city store. This 
fact is important because it affects the entire situation for both 
the salesperson and for the department head. 

The Buyer 

What the worker does. — In the small stores of this kind the 
prevailing rule is for the proprietor to do all the buying, but in 
the larger of the two stores studied, there were seven buyers, two 
of whom were women. They are responsible for all purchases 
for their departments, including the seasonable and the ''fill in" 
or between seasons, buying. Twice a year they go to New York 
or Chicago to buy whatever they feel they can dispose of with 
profit. Between seasons they buy short orders from traveling 
salesmen. They also direct the work of their departments, 
superintend regular and bargain sales and stock keeping, arrange 
displays, and also make actual sales. They keep careful records 
of stock, sales and costs. 

Special knowledge required. — The buyer must know the policy 
of the store and its methods, the tastes and characteristics of its 
customers and the amount of goods needed in each line. The 
latter is based on accurate stock records which show what kind 
of merchandise was popular and what was not. The knowledge 



330 Occupational Information [Part II 

of merchandise is the buyer's greatest asset. This includes thor- 
ough information- -.concerning textiles, fabrics, and styles, as 
well as buying markets and prices. As the buyer is the executive 
head of the department, he must teach methods of merchandis- 
ing to salespersons. 

The Salesperson 

What the worker does. — What and how much a salesperson 
may do, depends upon the size of the establishment, upon the 
department, the season of the year and the time of day. All 
activities at any counter may be divided into three parts : taking 
care of stock, making sales and recording sales. The rudimentary 
duties of the salesperson have been analyzed in other studies and 
are found to consist of dusting, sorting and arranging stock, keep- 
ing a list of the articles needed for the buyer, waiting on customers, 
attending to delivery of packages, and filling out sales slips 
in the prescribed way. The order and range of duties performed 
in making a sale and showing goods are similar at all counters 
within and between departments. The methods of handUng 
merchandise, however, inevitably vary. For example, the girl 
at the pattern counter does not show goods, as does the one who 
sells infant's wear, but plans costumes and explains the tech- 
nique of laying out the pattern. Some ready-to-wear goods 
require fitting, and in other departments, the salesperson must 
also do some sewing. 

Special knowledge required. — Recently the proprietor of a dry 
goods store stated that the content of the salesperson's job was 
seventy-five per cent, knowledge of merchandise and the other 
twenty-five per cent, business education and methods of pleas- 
ing the customer. What that seventy-five per cent, of knowl- 
edge consists of can easily be determined for any worker by expert 
analysis of the stock she is selling. In general, it consists of know- 
ing the original source of the raw material in the goods handled, 
its composition and preparation, process of manufacture, the use 
for which it is designed, what care it ought to have and the basis 
of its price. For instance, the person who sells umbrellas ought 
to know how and where they are made, whether the silk used is 
pure, vegetable or fibre, how handles are decorated, how umbrellas 
should be dried and cleaned and what colors of parasols are fast. 
She ought also to have some knowledge of the prevailing fashion 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 331 

in costume for which the parasol is an accessory and what accounts 
for differences in price, or why one parasol costs six dollars and 
another ten dollars. 

Such a list of suggestions about stock knowledge might be 
prepared for each kind of merchandise. A number have already 
been outhned in Survey reports of other cities; the section on 
Department Store work in the New York State Factory Commis- 
sion Report, 1915, the Chapter on Department Store in the 
Minneapolis Survey Report, 1915, and that of the Richmond, 
Virginia, Survey, 1915, and the Volume on Department Store 
Occupations issued by the Cleveland Educational Survey. The 
Minneapolis Report suggests the special knowledge involved in 
the following departments : yard goods, including cotton and woolen 
fabrics, linens, silks and mixtures, ribbons, lace and neckwear, 
handkerchiefs, trimmings, notions, patterns, art goods and needle- 
work, ready-to-wear suits, coats, dresses, waists and children's 
garments, hosiery and knitted underwear, gloves. 

The remainder of the practical knowledge needed by the sales- 
person consists of business arithmetic, English, penmanship, 
and such practical studies as will enable her to approach a customer 
determine what is desired, what range of prices the customer's 
purse will cover and how to substitute merchandise. This part 
of salesmanship has also been discussed in the above mentioned 
reports. In addition, some knowledge of sewing must be pos- 
sessed by girls who sell corsets, ribbons, patterns, millinery and 
art goods. 

8. The Shoe Store 

The scope. — There are eight shoe stores in Richmond which 
altogether employ about thirty-five salespersons. One type 
study was made for this Survey; it employs six salesmen and two 
errand boys on part time. 

Store organization. — The organization of this shoe store is very 
simple because the proprietor performs the work of the executive 
and office departments, and the delivering is done by boys who 
work after school and on Saturday. Each salesman has a special 
task assigned him in addition to this regular work, which occupies 
part of his time. 

The Salesman 

What the worker does. — In common with other such workers, 
the shoe salesman has to take care of his stock, keep it dusted, 



'S6'2 Occupational Infokmation [Paut II 

sorted and put away. The distinguishing characteristic of this 
stock work, however, is its wide range. Every pair of shoes is 
boxed and placed on the shelves, marked with a symbol to denote 
the style, size, color, make and price. Hundreds of shoes are 
handled and put away by the salesman every day. Once or 
twice a week salesman fill in the gaps in the shelves from the 
wareroom. Every salesman, in turn, sweeps the store and dusts 
it. 

He waits on customers, which means not simply showing 
merchandise, but in every case, fitting the shoe. To do this he 
takes the shoe off and examines it for hints of the customer's 
preference. He measures the foot with a special measuring stick 
to determine the size ; selects the stock and fits the shoe, trying on 
as many pair as necessary. When the sale is made, the sales- 
man records the amount in a cash register, makes change, or 
in case of a charge sale, places the sales slip into the register. 

In addition, each salesman has special duties. One man 
trims the window; another buys notions, such as shoe buckles 
and rosettes, strings, buttons and shoe horns. A third salesman is 
the examiner of all new shoes, testing them for quality and com- 
paring sizes and styles with the original order. A fourth sales- 
man makes collections of bills from customers. 

Special knowledge required: Shoes. — The employer inter- 
viewed in this study said he was unable to tell whether knowledge 
of stock or ability to get on with customers was most important 
because both were essential. Knowledge of stock includes facts 
about leather and stock; from what part of the animal the leather 
comes, whether it is split or whole; how it is tanned and pre- 
pared; about other materials, such as satin, velvet and canvas; 
and about the manufacturing process. The salesman must know 
centers of the shoe industry in United States and variations in 
their product, and steps in shoemaking. The salesman must 
know about the finished shoe, the kiad of last, its style and how 
the shoe was made. He must know that prices are based on qual- 
ity, pattern, style and distance traveled. 

Special knowledge required: Store stock. — Exactly on what 
shelf and what part of the shelf a high-heeled, tan, oxford shoe, 
size four and a half, B, Queen Quality style, is to be found must 
be known by the salesman. He must be able to read the shoe 
symbol understanding the figures and letters used, of which there 



Chap. XVlllJ Mercantile Sales 333 

are at least twelve entirely different combinations in the store 
studied. The salesman, who arranges the window, must know 
the demands of the season, and how to ^^show off" special features 
without overcrowding the window. The salesman who examines 
incoming merchandise must have an expert knowledge of leather 
and makes of shoe. 

Special knowledge required: Showing shoes. — Method of show- 
ing shoes includes, first, knowing the trick of taking off the cus- 
tomer's shoes so that he or she will be tethered to the spot while 
a search is made for stock; second, knowing how to measure the 
foot accurately; third, familiarity with stock patterns in order 
to get them promptly; fourth, fitting the shoe, judging whether 
it is too long or too short, too narrow or wide, and whether the 
heel and the ball of the foot is placed where it should be; and 
fifth, discussing the merits of the shoe in a convincing manner 
so as to establish confidence in the mind of the customer. This 
method of discussion must be different in character for men and 
women; for children and youths. Finally, it involves knowing 
the peculiarities of the customer, for the success in the shoe store 
depends almost entirely on personal service. Further discussion 
of the content of this work (''Tachnical Knowledge Needed by 
Salespersons in the Shoe Sections") is to be found in Department 
Store Occupations published by Cleveland Survey. 

Special knowledge required: Foot anatomy. — The expert shoe 
salesman with a working knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, 
can, by proper advise to customers about shoes best adapted to 
their feet, and by selecting and properly fitting the shoe, directly 
minister to the customer's health and comfort. Improperly 
selected and poorly fitted shoes are said to be one of the largest 
factors in causing broken arches, corns, bunyons and blisters. 
The shoe salesman may develop his work into a science which will 
not only pave the way to economic independence but to the rend- 
ering of great public service. The salesman should know all the 
bones and muscles of the foot, how to select and fit shoes to main- 
tain bones and muscles in their proper places, how to select and 
fit shoes so as to correct abnormal conditions, and how to order 
custom made shoes for exceptional cases. A knowledge of chil- 
dren's feet and shoes is equally vital. 

Special skill required. — -A good salesman must have a light, 
firm touch in slipping on shoes and smoothing leather over the 
feet. 



334 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special tech- 
nical knowledge about shoes may be obtained on the job, through 
the employer's instructions. Facts about shoes are learned also 
from salesmen representing manufacturers; from shoe trade 
journals and government reports, which the clerk may read when 
not engaged. School education about the anatomy of the foot, 
special and correct types of shoes, leathers and manufacturing 
processes, is a marketable asset for the shoe salesman. 

Physical and mental requirements. — Without a high degree of 
patience, the shoe clerk, like the telephone operator, is but a tink- 
ling symbol, not because all salesmen do not need this virtue 
but because customers in shoe stores are especially testy and 
difficult to handle. 

General knowledge required. — Many of the salesmen now at 
work have only had elementary education, but the employer 
prefers in selecting new salesmen, to choose those with high school 
training because maturity, good address, training in system and 
English are needed in this work for highest success. As far as 
the actual performance of the task is concerned, however, reading, 
writing and arithmetic are the only essential school studies, accord- 
ing to the present requirements of the shoe salesman. 

Promotion. — Promotion depends upon the growth of business. 
Many employees have gone from this small store to the field of 
traveUng salesmanship or a large city store, which indicates that 
the store is a ^ood training school. Within the organization, 
there is no position between the proprietor and the salesman, 
which means tliat increased salary is the only aspect of promo- 
tion. 

Source and selection of workers. — New workers in this particular 
estabUshment have almost always been selected from part-time 
workers who have learned the business by working after school 
on Saturdays or during the summer vacation. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — It is freer work than 
being confined to one counter and yet not as tiresome as grocery 
store work because the salesman sits to serve the customer. 

9. The Men's and Boy's Furnishing Store 

The scope. — There are ten men's furnishings and haberdashery 
stores in Richmond, employing about twenty-three salespersons. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 335 

The Survey made a type study of one store in which there were 
two proprietors, two salesmen and two part-time workers who 
dehver packages and run errands. 

The Salesman 

What the worker does. — Since the proprietor does all the dis= 
tinctive things, such as writing advertisements, supervising every 
activity of the store, managing the finances and buying all stock, 
the work of the salesman is limited to unpacking and arranging 
stock, waiting on customers and trimming the windows under 
the direction of the employer, who also helps when nessecary with 
sales and stock work. 

Special knowledge required. — The salesman must know the 
stock to the same degree that other salespersons must know theirs. 
Knowledge of fabrics, textiles, linings and finishings are especially 
necessary. He must know how to fit overcoats, suits and hats, 
which means a complete knowledge of sizes and enough knowl- 
edge of tailoring to judge how the coat fits across the back and what 
the length of sleeves should be. He must know the makes of 
different garments and hats, and must know the reason for dif- 
ference in price and be awake to all changes in styles. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Direct informa- 
tion from the buyer, experience, and reading the trade journals 
are the chief means of receiving information. 

Special skill required. — None other than those involved in 
making change or wrapping purchases are required. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Nothing which dis- 
tinguishes this salesman from other salesmen is required. 

General education required. — Rudimentary education is suffi- 
cient. 

Promotion. — There is no opportunity for promotion except 
as shareholder in the business. 

Source and selection of workers. — Workers are selected from 
high school boys, who work part-time. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — This work is not seasonal and 
requires no overtime. 



336 Occupational Information [Part II 

10. The Millinery Store 

The scope. — There are nine millinery stores in Richmond, 
all owned by women. The following tabular statement gives 
some idea of types of employment in the small shops in cities of 
the 25,000 population class. Two stores were studied. 

Proprietors 11 

Bookkeepers (on part-time) 2 

Trimmers 5 

Makers 12 

Sales force 19 

Part-time workers under 17 years of age 3 

Total 52 

Changes in business methods. — In trimming, the millinery 
business has changed decidedly in the last thirty years. One 
milliner interviewed for this study described some of the changes. 
Thirty years ago a great many Quakers bonnets, caps and small 
hats were made with materials shirred on reeds instead of wires. 
They were sold for five or six dollars each. The trimmer usually 
received two dollars for her work. Since there were no such 
things as bandeaus for hats, a woman had to take the shape as it 
came. If it sat up on top of her head, well and good, if it came down 
over her eyes, so much the worse. Mothers and daughters bought 
hats of exactly the same shape, the only difference being that the 
daughter might have a red ribbon and the mother black. Milliners 
made very few wire frames. Leghorns, milan and neopolitan 
materials were then much less expensive than at present, and 
velvet and satin ribbons were purchased by the yard and used 
for bands and bows. 

Problems of trimmings are now somewhat different largely be- 
cause of new methods of work. Pattern hats in soft braids or 
velvet can be exactly copied now by the use of wire frames. The 
pattern hat is measured with great care and the frame made to 
correspond exactly. The milliner only copies a model, if she can 
make money on it, since it is expensive work and since only in 
that way can she make the expensive model pay. Pattern hats 
once out of style are worth nothing at all and often depreciate so 
that they are finally sold for perhaps one-fifth of the actual cost 
to the dealer. 

Problems of buying. — Buying is done to-day by going to the 
market, just as it was thirty years ago; all flowers and novelties, 



Chap XVIII.] Mercantile Sales 337 

buckles and trimmings were bought of the wholesale dealer just 
as they are now, although at a higher price. There were fewer 
imported flowers then than there are now and plumes were not 
so good for the money as they are to-day. But no milliner ever 
made her own flowers or novelties. 

One very great difference in buying nowadays is due to the 
variety of styles needed. Formerly a winter hat and a spring 
hat were the only hats the average woman purchased. Now the 
milliner has to keep sport hats, fancy hats, tailored and plain 
hats, large and small hats, all perhaps for the satisfaction of one 
individual. She must have sport hats in pink and brown and 
green, black, white and black and white. One milliner said, "It 
used to be true that mother and daughter would come together and 
each buy a sailor hat; the daughter would wear hers tipped over 
one ear and the mother would wear hers straight, but to the mil- 
liner it was all one. Now the consumers read trade journals 
and women's magazines and are too intelligent to be satisfied with 
shoddy materials or old styles." 

Present methods of business. — A number of model hats are 
bought each season, some of which are copied and some only 
adapted. A number of hats are bought already trimmed, 
the rest are shapes ready for trimming, as it is very rare now- 
adays for a milliner to make a hat. It is for this reason that 
the retail millinery business will bring increased opportunities to 
the salesperson rather than to the trimmer or maker. 

Character of occupation. — Since the general problems of retail 
millinery are the same, no matter where the store is located, 
even though circumstances and types of customers vary inevi- 
tably, it follows that an analysis of the elements in the occupation 
would obtain anywhere. The study of retail millinery in the 
Minneapolis Survey needs only to be changed in minor details 
to apply directly to Richmond. A repetition of its detail is 
obviously unnecessary. 

Store organization.— In both stores studied the proprietor was 
store manager and milliner, supervising everything, directing the 
work of the trimmer, making sales, buying models, shapes, trim- 
mings and materials. In one store there was in addition the head 
trimmer, two makers, often a new girl who is learning the trade, 
and one or two salesgirls. The work of the trimmer and maker is 
studied because it is often combined with selling and because 

22—5463 



338 Occupational Information [Part II 

^he trimmer in a store of this type might become buyer or sales- 
person in a larger establishment 

Dijferences between small shops and large city shops. — Unlike 
the proprietor of the large city store, the milliner in the Richmond 
shops employs no designer and no regular apprentices. She 
has no office or office force, because, although she may have some 
assistance with her bookkeeping, she pays her own bills and keeps 
her customer's accounts. Certain problems of buying are also 
different, since much less imported stuff is used in the smaller 
town. 

Facts Conrimon to All Workers 

Source and selection of workers. — There is very little change in 
the personnel of the stores from one year to another. New 
workers are employed through direct application or through per- 
sonal inquiry on the part of the proprietor. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — This is an occupation with two 
long seasons of twelve to sixteen weeks. The trimmer comes 
several weeks ahead of the time when customers are ready to buy. 
She joins the employer for the buying week after which she begins 
to prepare for the opening sale. Between seasons employees 
occupy themselves in such a way that they may return promptly. 
One head trimmer works in Cleveland between seasons, but in 
Richmond it is impossible to determine that the idle season is a 
hardship, since so many of these w^orkers live at home with their 
families and do not seem to mind being unoccupied part of each 
year. A few milliners employ their salesgirls all year round. 
The season for the maker is somewhat shorter than for the trimmer 
and about the same for the salesgirl. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The work is seden- 
tary and confining. 

The Head Trimmer 

What the worker does. — The head trimmer helps with the 
buying each season. She also assists in directing trimming and 
sewing. She does the most expert sewing herself and practically 
all of the trimming. On some occasions she sells hats. 

Special knowledge required. — Knowledge of styles, materials, 
designs and color combinations are required. Knowledge of 
sewing and all the intermediate steps in making a hat is the ground 
work of the expert. 



Chap. XVllI] Mekcantile Sales 339 

Special skill required. — Sewing, manipulating ornaments, 
ribbon and wires are essential. 

How special knowledge and skill may he obtained. — Experience, 
reading of style journals and school education in color harmony 
and designing are the chief sources of knowledge. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Taste and color dis- 
crimination are required. No particular powers of analysis or 
memory are needed for the work according to present standards. 
Creative imagination, color harmony and design are assets of 
marketable value. The work requires no pattern and the in- 
dividual uses her fingers and what taste and creative gift may 
be hers. 

General educational requirements. — The only educational re- 
quirement is that which is necessary in meeting people as assis- 
tant buyer. 

Promotion. — The position of the head trimmer is the highest in 
the milliner's shop. 

Wages.— The weekly wage is from twenty to twenty-five dol- 
lars. 

The Maker 

What the worker does. — The maker bastes in linings, sews on 
braids and velvets, faces hats and helps in arranging stock. 

Special knowledge required. — Sewing, wiring, how to get fac- 
ings on without wrinkles, akid blind stitching are required. The 
Minneapolis Report calls her, ''the skilled mechanic," in con- 
trast to the trimmer, who is the ''artist in the shop." 

Special skill required. — Ability to sew braids, buckram, and to 
hold goods smooth, and also to manipulate wire in making frames 
are required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Ordinary knowl- 
edge and skill in sewing is supposed to be possessed by a girl 
before she is employed, but after employment she must be trained 
to use particular materials on the job. Both milliners inter- 
viewed stated that they had almost always had a girl in their 
establishment who was learning how to become a maker and that 
in Richmond many of the head trimmers and a number of the 
milliners themselves have been trained on the job. School train- 
ing in color harmony and design would be an asset. 



340 Occupational Information [Part II 

Mental and physical requirements. — Color discrimination and 
ability to acquire deftness of fingers is essential. 

General educational requirements.— A.Yii\\m.QiiQ, for making 
exact measurements is necessary. 

Promotion. — The maker may be promoted to trimmer. 
Wages. — Salary for this position is from six to ten dollars a 
week. 

The Salesperson 

What the worker does. — The salesgirl helps arrange stock and 
sells hats. She has to try hats on customers. She must suggest 
possible changes in the hat, its color or line, although for final 
settlement of a problem, she calls the milliner or head trimmer. 

Special knowledge required. —The salesgirl must have a knowl- 
edge of the stock. This means in addition to what has been sug- 
gested before as coming under this head, source, method of making, 
name of producer and prices. She must remember and recall the 
different shapes which might suit the customer. She must be able 
to adapt the hat to the lines of the customer's face. 

Special skill required. — Knack of adjusting hats upon the cus- 
tomer's head without ruffling her hair is necessary. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — On the job the 
the salesperson may obtain technical skill, but school training in 
color harmony and design is essential. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Memory and power of 
visualization is needed in studying line of hats on customer's 
head. 

General educational requirements. — Reading and writing are 
needed for taking orders, accounting for making out sales slip. 

Promotion. — The only promotion is an increase in salary. 

Wages. — The salary is from six to ten dollars a week. 

11. The Five and Ten Cent Store 

The field and store organization. — There are two five and ten 
cent stores in Richmond, both branches of nation wide corpora- 
tions, which together employ sixty-one people. They are or- 
ganized very similarly and with a manager and assistant, stock 
workers, salespeople and office force. Women are employed 
exclusively in the latter capacities. One of these two stores was 
included in this special study. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 341 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Source and selection of workers. — The workers are selected by 
direct application and trial. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — There is steady work through- 
out the year. Vacation is given with pay. The hours are from 
eight a. m. to five-thirty p. m. and on Saturday to ten p. m. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Bad air in crowded 
and rush hours, and fatigue from standing at work are inherent 
in the work. 

The Salesperson 

What the worker does. — The work of the salesperson in the 
five and ten cent store is to stand behind the counter and 
dispose of the merchandise asked for. She wraps packages and 
makes change from a cash register at her counter. She is re- 
sponsible for keeping her stock in order on the counter and on 
the shelves below, where extra supplies are kept, and for report- 
ing when anything is running low. 

Special knowledge required. — The employer expects no knowl- 
edge of stock on the part of the girl, largely because all supplies 
are ordered in a stereotyped fashion, over which even the mana- 
ger has little control, and because the store stock is cheap and 
customers seldom ask questions about it. The salesperson's 
information is largely a matter of wrapping up packages and 
making change, since all the stock handled is displayed on the 
counter with the price marked on a placard, except in the case 
of some special department like hardware, where the salesperson 
has to know the names of a great variety of screws and hinges, 
or in the millinery counter where the clerk helps select flowers 
and frames. 

Special skill required. — Speed rather than skill in handling 
merchandise is demanded. This is especially true of candy sellers. 
The girl who sells sheet music must be able to play the piano. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The necessary 
skill and knowledge are obtained on the job, except for the music 
counter, where the salesgirl must know how to play the piano 
before being employed. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Ability to acquire speed 
in handling goods and wrapping packages is required. 

General education required. — A knowledge of reading, writing 
and simple calculations is necessary. 



342 Occupational Information [Part 11 

Promotion. — Promotion may consist of increased wages and 
shift from the sales to the office force. 

Wages. — Of seventeen workers reporting wages received, 
weekly wages are as follows : 

1 worker $3 . 50 

2 workers 4 . 00 

5 workers 4 . 50 

5 workers 5 . 00 

2 workers 6.00 

1 worker 6 . 50 

1 worker 7 . 00 

The Stockman 

What the worker does. — The stockman unpacks express and 
freight packages, sorts stock, marks and puts away stock, carries 
all supplies from the basement stockroom to counters upon 
receipt of stock orders from salespersons. He does all odd jobs 
and sweeps the store every night. 

Special knowledge required. — The stockman must know how 
to check merchandise against the invoice, the systems used in 
putting away stock and in keeping a record of what goes in and 
out. 

Special skill required. — Care in unpacking and carrying goods, 
and in sweeping and cleaning is sufficient. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Knowledge and 
skill are acquired on the job by instructions from the manager. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The '^ability to go through 
a grind,'' strength for moving heavy boxes and health to stand 
working in a basement are necessary. 

General education required. — Very little general education is 
required. Reading, writing and arithemtic are essential for 
efficiency in the work, and eighth grade graduation or some high 
school education is necessary. 

Promotion. — The stockman may be promoted to assistant 
manager. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 343 

12. The Furniture Store 

The scope. — There are seven furniture stores in Richmond, 
which employ thirty-eight salesmen, four repairmen, and eight 
deliverymen. Two stores were studied for the Survey. 

Store organization. — Both estabhshments were definitely organ- 
ized into five divisions: Executive; office, sales; set up and repair; 
and delivery. Women are employed only in the office. The 
store system of recording sales and of taking orders is very similar 
to that already described in the dry goods store, except that no 
cashier is employed and that all purchases are delivered. In 
one store the sales department is subdivided, not according to 
occupations, into buyers and salespersons because the proprietor 
does all the buying, but according to commodities sold: Furni- 
ture, carpets and stove departments. 

The Sales Department 
Facts Common to All Workers 

General duties. — There is no more specialization of work in 
this type of store than in the grocery or dry goods store. Each 
salesman must be able to sell anything in his department and to 
substitute in others during the noon hour and rush periods. 

What the worker does. — The salesman in every department 
must arrange and dust the furniture in his section and keep the 
floors clean. One man on every floor plans the distribution and 
arrangement of furniture exhibits. He helps direct deliver3aiien 
in moving furniture. He must show his merchandise to the cus- 
tomer, explaining every detail about it. When a sale is made, 
he makes out his sales slip and arranges with the bookkeeper and 
the credit man for extension of credit and for installment pay- 
ments. He must also be on the alert for possible new clients. 

Special knowledge required. — The special information about his 
stock which the furniture salesman must know% has an interesting 
and varied content. Department store occupations in Cleve- 
land already mentioned in the previous discussion, offer an out- 
line of information on upholstery, which, although meant for the 
department store salesman of yard goods, is equally useful for the 
salesman of upholstered furniture. 

In addition to knowledge of textiles and designs, the sales- 
man must know woods, their sources and kinds, veneers, var- 
nishes, stain and paint, construction of furniture, what parts 



344 Occupational Information [Part II 

are glued and what are screwed, durability, styles and periods, 
use for which each is designed, relation of style of furniture and 
architecture of houses, important furniture factories and their 
relative merits, care of furniture, oiling and polishing. 

Knowledge of rugs and carpets is a large field and experts 
devote their entire lives to mastering it. A rough sketch of such 
information includes the names and source of various makes of 
rugs and carpets with the distinguishing quality of each in 
design, dye, mixtures, weaves, process of making, relative value 
and merit, and suitability of colors and patterns according to 
various styles of house furniture. 

Information about stoves is special and almost technical 
since the salesman must know exactly how they work, kind and 
amount of fuel required, how heating apparatus is arranged and 
regulated, how stoves are cleaned, and the advantage of each 
part and device. 

A salesman ought to be able to demonstrate what he is selling, 
to adjust lamps, to open table arms, and to show all the con- 
trivances of a desk or kitchen cabinet. He must find the dis- 
tinctive merit or '^talking point" of every piece sold, and be 
able to answer questions about usefulness, fragility, durability 
and suitability for a given purpose of one piece of furniture as 
compared with another. 

Special skill required. — Skill required for such work is neither 
distinctive nor definite and involves only making adjustments of 
such articles as lamp globes and pneumatic sweepers, rolling and 
unrolling carpets, and shifting furniture about. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The skill just 
described may be acquired in the regular day's work. Special 
knowledge is gained gradually through experience, through read- 
ing the trade journals for which the proprietor subscribes, and 
through direct talks from the proprietor who buys merchandise. 
There are an infinite number and variety, the reading of which 
would be of great' value to the salesman. The Toledo Public 
Library has published a splendid bibliography of fifty books, 
all of which are suggestive to the salesman. One Richmond 
employer provided leaflets on salesmanship, advertising and furni- 
ture, which salesmen are required to read whenever not otherwise 
engaged. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The same qualities of ap- 
pearance and manner which make a salesman a success in other 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 345 

stores, are needed here. Some mechanical abihty is an asset; 
good taste and color discrimination are especially needed by the 
window trimmer. The credit man ought to have power to analyze 
financial facts and summarize them. 

General educational requirements. — Few of the salesmen in these 
stores are high school graduates. If they can speak correct Eng- 
lish, make out sales slips accurately and have sufficient education to 
enable them to read and understand books and journals on furni- 
ture they are equipped for work. Further education is an asset 
and, rewards in advancement are sufficient to induce men who 
possess it to enter this business. 

Promotion. — One salesman has become confidential credit man. 
On each floor of one firm there are heads of stock who are re- 
sponsible for reporting when new merchandise is needed and to 
such positions a salesman may be promoted but otherwise he can 
only advance in salary. Service in one store requires special 
duties which offer opportunity for increased responsibility and 
salary. 

Source and selection of workers. — When a new man is needed, 
inquiries are dropped among traveling salesmen. One employer 
stated that he never took a man from another similar store in town. 
Sometimes the employees know of applicants. Workers are 
interviewed and then tried out. Previous experience in furniture 
is such an asset that salesmen possessing it are always chosen 
in preference to a ''green man," even though the latter was better 
educated. Sometimes men are promoted from the delivery or 
repair force to the sales department. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — Employment is continuous 
throughout the year. Extra people are sometimes taken on at 
Christmas time. Overtime is often demanded because no cus- 
tomer may be left while a sale is pending. If a salesman is made 
late to meals, he is given money to purchase them down town but 
no extra pay. Hours are from seven a. m. to six p. m. and Satur- 
day to nine-thirty p. m. Vacation with pay is given in one store 
and salaries are not reduced on account of illness. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There is no hazard or 
strain of any kind. The character of this work is bound to be 
good, with spacious and attractive quarters, opportunity to move 
about or sit down when not occupied and association with a rather 
selected type of customers. 



346 Occupational Information [Part II 

Wages. — Partly because the sales department is composed of 
men, the wages in this work are higher than in most retail stores. 
One employer quotes a minimum wage of eighteen dollars. Sched- 
ules of individual workers show that seven receive more than 
fifteen dollars per week. 

The Special Worker 

What the worker does. — In one store, in addition to the regular 
work of selling, three men had special duties. One of them 
assisted the proprietor by checking all new acquisitions of merchan- 
dise against the invoices received. On the basis of original cost 
and margin of profit which the firm is accustomed to allow, this 
worker fixes the price of each article, and marks the price ticket. 

The second man attends to the credit ledger and keeps in 
touch with payments due. To him are referred all questions of 
the financial standings of customers. He keeps the confidential 
ledger which gives the loss and gain of the company. He is also 
efficiency expert and is constantly improving the methods and 
system used in the establishment. 

The third man is a window dresser. Every week the decora- 
tions are changed entirely. Once a week is thought often enough 
since many buyers from the country and even in town do not 
have the opportunity to see the windows more frequently than 
that. 

Special knowledge required. — In addition to the knowledge of 
merchandise and salesmanship, these three workers must have 
special information. The business manager must keep in touch 
with markets and market prices; know what his competitors are 
charging; be aware of the rise in cost of lumber or in the wages of 
factory labor or cabinet workers or changes in prices of imported 
goods. He must know how to compute a fair and yet profitable 
price for each article. 

The credit man must know how to determine the credit of an 
individual and how to keep credit records. He must know when 
it is good salesmanship to be lenient about an account and when 
it is bad Imsiness and what new customers would be desirable to 
attract. He must understand bookkeeping sufficiently to cal- 
culate the cost and profit of every department and the efficiency 
of each salesman. 

The window dresser must understand the medium of adver- 
tising. What the ]\Iinneapolis Survey says of the art of window 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 347 

trimming seems especially applicable to the requirements of this 
business. ''A window trimmer needs to be an all-round man, 
and to have some knowledge of color, painting, decorating, dis- 
playing goods to good advantage, sign writing and of architecture 
and modeling." 

Repair and Unpacking Department 

Organizatio7i. — Each of the stores studied had two men in this 
department. Their work was allied to sales because they are 
sometimes promoted to this department, and to delivery because 
the assistant repairman helps the teamster, and to building ser- 
vice because they help attend to the furnace and help in cleaning, 
The rest of their work, however, is entirely distinct. 

What the worker does. — The worker in this department re- 
ceives furniture delivered to the warehouse. He must uncrate 
it and report if anything is injured or broken. Most merchandise 
arrives ' 'knocked down" and the repairman must set it up, polish 
or oil it and get it in ship shape for the sales-room. If there is some 
slight injury to the article, he repairs it. He is responsible for 
all the furniture in the warehouse, which he must keep at the prop- 
er temperature. In busy times the assistant repairman helps 
the teamster in delivering purchases. Both men are alternately 
responsible for keeping up the furnace in the store, for washing 
windows and general cleaning work. 

Special knowledge required. — This workman is skilled and needs 
to know practically everything that the cabinet . maker knows. 
He must know the construction of furniture thoroughly, other- 
wise he will not be able to uncrate it without damage or to set it 
up properly. Only a skilled carpenter can discover without 
directions, how to put together or adjust any kind of article from 
a lamp to a buffet. 

This worker does not have to know what the salesman does 
about upholstering, but he must understand woods to exactly 
the same degree. He must know the quality of the furniture^ 
handled and finishes and oils in order to polish and properly care 
for it. 

Since part of this worker's duty is to check the incoming ship- 
ment against the original invoice, he must know the forms used 
by the company and how to report mistakes. What is needed to 
understand the furnace and for proper methods of cleaning will 
be found in Chapter XXIII, ''Household Service," 



348 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special skill required. — This is considered skilled work and 
requires the same manual deftness and technique needed by the 
cabinet maker. 

Hoiv special knowledge and skill are obtained. — One of the 
workers in the store studied was a cabinet maker by trade and his 
assistant had learned everything he needed for efficiency as his 
helper in the department. Probably school courses in wood- 
working and carpentry would be of great assistance to any one 
desiring to enter this field. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Such a worker must be 
strong physically in order to handle the large pieces of furniture 
to be uncrated. He must have ability to analyze his problem; — 
that of determining the construction of a piece of furniture he has 
never seen before which is hidden by a crate, and afterwards to 
discover how all its different parts fit together. 

General education required. — Elementary school education is 
necessary for efficiency in this work since records have to be 
written, invoices checked and written orders followed. More 
advanced education is not needed except for promotion to sales- 
manship. 

Promotion. — The only advance possible within the department 
is from assistant repairman to head repairman and for further 
promotion the employee must be shifted to sales work which 
sometimes occurs. 

Source and selection of workers. — If the assistant teamster has 
been taken on in this department, it is because his skill in handling 
furniture has already been partly tested. Personal inquiry is 
the method used in obtaining new workers, but, as a matter of 
fact, few changes are made. The head man in one store has 
been in that position since the business was first organized 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Employment is regular and 
continuous. In the spring and fall these workere are required to 
put in extra time, if necessary, without extra pay. Extra help 
is hired during the holidays. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no hazards 
in this employment and its inherent conditions are the same as 
in a regular carpenter shop. 

Wages. — Weekly wages are from thirteen dollars and fifty 
cents to foui'teen dollars. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 349 

^ 13. The Jewelry Store 

The scope. — Richmond has six jewehy stores, which accord- 
ing to the Survey census report, employ nine workers. One type 
study was made for the Survey. 

Store organization. — The jewelry store is distinguished from 
other stores by the dual character of its method of handling 
merchandise, which requires the employment of skilled jewelry 
repairmen as well as salesmen. The repairmen repair watches 
and jewelry, set jewels, and do engraving. Each of these skilled 
workmen are also required to make sales and are usually called 
upon to sell their specialties. The store studied has one watch 
repairman, one jeweler, one engraver who works on part time, 
and one general salesperson, besides the manager, who is also a 
general salesman. 

The Sales Department 

What the worker does. — Besides their specialties of repair work 
and managing, workers in the sales department wait on customers. 
The general saleswoman takes care of stock, dusts, arranges every- 
thing in the store, and makes sales. If a customer wishes an 
expert opinion of jewels, watches or silverware, the proprietor or 
one of the repairmen is called. Orders for jewelry designs, for 
engraving and for special stones or silver patterns are taken by 
salespeople. 

Special knowledge required. — The content of this work is 
highly specialized. Knowledge of precious stones is so difficult 
that in large firms one expert devotes his entire time to one kind 
of stone. In a store of this kind, however, such subdivision of 
effort is impossible, and jewels and watches are bought by the 
manager who relies upon the judgment of experts in the larger 
company dealt with. The jewelry repairman knows, however, 
enough about stones not only to set them artistically, but to discuss 
them in a convincing manner with the customer. He can ex- 
plain their respective perfections, show off their iridescence, answer 
questions concerning their value and give minute details of their 
history and process of polishing. 

Selling a watch is primarily a matter of convincing the customer 
of its reliability, since the mere showino; of patterns and styles, 
jeweled or plain, in silver or gold, is a thing any salesperson could 
do. The man who understands the construction of watches. 



350 Occupational Information [Part II 

who repairs and regulates them, is the one who can best present 
the case to the customer, because his knowledge is thorough and 
tecTinical. 

The sale of silver is not so difficult. It is fairly easy for a 
salesperson to learn how silverware is made, the process of plating, 
what plates are best, the superiority of one make of silver over 
another, the various patterns and styles, and the producing firms 
w^hich are most reliable. Considerable information about social 
customs and fashions in table and tea service and bric-a-brac and 
the place silver plays in the scheme of decoration for boudoir or 
parlor, is necessary to explain the purposes of certain articles and 
designs. How to take care of silver and what polishes are good, 
is necessary information which the salesman must have. 

Patterns and makes of china and the particular usefulness of 
each and every piece is also comparatively easy to grasp. How 
necessary it is for good salesmanship, however, to know thoroughly 
the process and the manufacture of china is illustrated by the 
experience of a girl interviewed for this study who was asked by 
her customers why each piece of a certain popular kind of ware 
contained imperfections which looked like tiny dents. Being 
unable to answer, she consulted the traveling salesman repre- 
senting the producing company, who, ignorant in his turn, had to 
refer back to the factory located in England. When the sales- 
girl was finally able to tell her customer that the dents were 
caused inevitably by the process of firing the china because the 
little prop upon which it rested in the oven left its mark on the 
surface, she established perfect conviction and satisfaction in the 
customer's mind. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The engraver 
and jewelry and watch repairmen acquire skill and knowledge by 
serving as helpers to experienced men. School courses in mechan- 
ical and free-hand drawing and designing would be very helpful 
to such workers. Their apprenticeship in this work prepares 
them also in the thorough knowledge of stock which makes them 
valuable salesmen. The manager also offers information about 
merchandise which he has acquired in his buying trips. The 
Toledo Public Library has suggested a list of thirty-one books, 
all of which are valuable for persons employed in jewelry stores. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Sensitive hands, deft for 
handling fragile and tiny objects, are an asset in such work. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 351 

General educational requirements. — Good spoken English is the 
chief requirement in jewelry salesmanship. Highly skilled re- 
pairmen would be valuable even if they had no general education. 
The employer interviewed, however, stated that in taking on new 
workers he preferred those with a high school education. 

Promotion. — The repairmen and salesmen may receive 
increased salary and responsibility as the business develops. 
There is only one purely executive position in the store, and 
opportunities for promotion are limited. 

Source and selection of workers. — It is very difficult to secure 
trained repairmen, and if a new one is needed, the jeweler has to 
scour the country. An engraver or salesman may be accepted as 
an apprentice and gradually trained to be adaptable anywhere in 
the store. No apprentices, however, in this field are employed 
in Richmond. 

Reasonableness and overtime. — Employment is continuous 
throughout the year. Extra workers are employed at Christmas 
time. Overtime is of negligible quantity and hours are from eight 
a. m. to five-thirty p. m. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — Since this store, 
which deals in the fine things of ''civilized life," must provide 
attractive quarters for their display, the workers in it are especially 
favored with good conditions. Repair work is hard on the eyes, 
but mere selling involves no strain. 

Wages. — A skilled watch repairman commands twenty-five 
dollars; a jewelry repairman twenty dollars and a general sales- 
person about fifteen dollars per week. 

14. The Florist Shop 

The scope. — There is only one retail flower store in Richmond. 
The horticultural side of the florist's business is partly treated in 
Chapter XXVI, ''Home and School Gardening.'' 

The Sales Department 

What the worker does. — There are two salesmen in the store, 
both of whom make sales of flowers and plants to customers, 
put up flowers in boxes for delivery and help take care of the 
stock in the store. They wire flowers, make corsage bouquets and 
funeral wreaths. One of these salesmen is also a decorator who 



352 Occupational iNFOfiMATioN [Part II 

trims the window of the shop and is sent out on assignments to 
decorate houses, churches, dinner tables and clubs for ceremonies 
and festivities. 

Special knowledge required. — The salesman must have at his 
command the entire range of prices of plants and flowers and 
the system and policy of the company regarding extending credit 
and arranging for large orders. No salesman could become useful 
in a shop unless he had first had experience in the greenhouse. 
He must know flowers in order to keep them at the proper 
temperature and give them the right amount of water in 
the store; in order to repeat to customers their names and 
to give information about their care; and in order to se- 
lect the best variety for a specified puipose, since color 
and lasting quality, stiffness or grace of flowers and 
plants make or mar the success of the customer's plan. In 
addition to this knowledge, the decorator must be able to wire 
flowers and build designs. He has a very special field of work 
since he must plan floral pieces and schemes of adornment. This 
means that he should be able to make a sketch of his plan, that 
he must understand something of architecture, that he should 
possess the power of artistic color blending and the knowledge 
of social custom and etiquette affecting decorations for various 
occasions. Very often the customer places all responsibility 
upon the decorator for producing appropriate effects, whether 
for a funeral, a debut or for a bridal luncheon. Probably the situa- 
tion is more difficult when the decorator is not left free but hamp- 
ered by demands from ignorant or inartistic customers. In this 
case the decorator must know how to subordinate his asthetic 
to his commercial sense without giving a hint of his suffering. 

Special skill required. — There is a definite and special skill in 
handling flowers without twisting or breaking them while arrang- 
ing them firmly in a bouquet, or upon a design, or gracefully dis- 
playing them in show cases. 

How special knowledge and skill are oblained. — Such salesman- 
ship requires a definite apprenticeship of several years in the 
greenhouse, planting, transplanting, pruning, spraying and nurs- 
ing plants and flowers. Horticulture as a school study is valuable 
but must be supplemented by practical work. After this period, 
a salesman is ready for work in the store under supervision of 
someone who can give suggestions about methods of approaching 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 353 

and pleasing the customer. But the decorator must have a 
course of special training in floral design and decoration. This 
must be learned b}" further apprenticeship to a decorator. Prac- 
tical work might profitably be accompanied by the stud}' of books 
on architecture and design. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The scientist and the 
artist must blend to make a superior flower salesman or decorator. 
Little analysis or memory is required but rather imagination, 
aesthetic sense of color and harmony, and creative impulse. 

General education required. — Advanced education is an asset 
to a worker in this fleld because of the selected group of customers 
with whom he deals. 

Promotion. — From the position of salesman the onl}^ possible 
advance is to that of decorator. 

Source and selection of workers. — Apprenticeship in the green- 
house gives the proprietor an opportunity to test the ability and 
taste of potential salesmen and to select the most promising men 
for promotion to that department. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Work is continuous throughout 
the year. There is a good deal of overtime which is not re- 
munerated, during the busy season. In the summer slack season 
there is no deduction of paj^ and vacations are given. 

Wages. — The employer stated that a salesman receives eigh- 
teen dollars weekly. One apprentice earns six dollars a week. 

What the workers lack. — Employees accepted at the green- 
house show great lack of the rudiments of education; simple 
arithmetic, spelling and English. Further training is absolutely 
necessary for these workers and some of them seek to acquire it 
at night school. 

15. The Book and Stationery Store 

The scope. — There is only one bona fide book store in Rich- 
mond, although other stores keep both books and stationery. 
Wall paper is also on sale in this store but this department is 
entirely separate. 

Organization. — Besides the proprietor, two sales people are 
employed, one of whom also keeps the account books. Both 
these workers are girls and they divide responsibility for stock 
between them. Their activities cover selling anywhere in the 
store. 

L 23—5463 



354 Occupational Information [Part II 

The Salesperson 

}Vhat the worker does. — Both saleswomen do some buying, 
one books and the other stationery and engraving, entirely from 
catalogs, order sheets and travehng salesmen. They sort and 
arrange stock with an idea of featuring new productions, novelties 
and best sellers. They help invoice stock and fix prices on articles 
for sale, except in the case of books whose prices are fixed by the 
publishers. They make sales of any kind, although each one 
keeps to her own special department unless she is needed else- 
where. Orders are taken for books, engravings and for letter 
heads. Girls record cash sales on the cash register and charge 
sales by writing the amounts on the customer's file card in the 
credit catalog. 

Special knowledge required. — These salespeople must know 
more about the stock they handle than do most others, because 
they are buyers and must know wholesale as well as retail prices, 
and the comparative value of different manufacturers in methods 
of doing business, prices and products. They must also know 
the tastes and desires of their customers from the buyer's stand- 
point. The girl who sells books is often called upon for advice about 
them and the more widel}^ read she is the better. She must at 
least be assured of up-to-date catalogs and methods of securing 
information, and must know how to send in orders. The clerk 
who sells office supplies must know something about bookkeeping 
and office work, to understand articles sold. The clerk who sells 
stationery and novelties must know social customs in order to 
suggest what note paper to buy, what engraving to use and what 
table decorations and favors to advise. 

An outline of the kind of course which would prepare a sales- 
person for this special kind of position is found in the section on 
Department Store Work in the Fourth Report of the New York 
State Factory Investigating Commission. The Minneapohs Voca- 
tional Education Survey offers an excellent discussion of the con- 
tent of the special information required by the salesperson at 
the stationery counter. 

Special skill required. — No special skill is required, save those 
involved in operating the cash register and wrapping purchases. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — This information 
is gathered by talking to traveling salesmen when buying, by read- 
ing books and reviewing journals and by studying the customers 



Chap. XVIII] Mekcantile Sales 355 

and catalogs. The basic information about types of books. and 
general literature must be obtained in school, before the worker 
is employed. Part of the Library worker's course would be of 
cash value to the book salesman. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Because of the character 
of the merchandise dealt with, the salespersons must be unusually 
intelligent, although not necessarily physically strong. 

General educational requiremeiits. — The people who deal at the 
book store belong to the intelligent element of the community 
and therefore must be served by generally well informed sales- 
persons. One of these workers has had some college training and 
she feels that she makes use of it ei^ery day in fulfilling the pos- 
sibilites of her work. 

Promotion . — Increased salary and responsibility are the only 
possibilities of promotion. 

Source and selection of workers. — Very few changes occur in this 
store. If an opening occurs, that worker, who is known to the 
proprietor or salespeople, would be preferred to others equall}^ 
well educated. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Work is not seasonable and there 
is no overtime. Hours are from eight a. m. to six p. m. Vaca- 
tion is two weeks in length. Extra Avorkers are engaged at 
Christmas time. 

Hazards and inherent character of worJx. — Such work is con- 
fining, yet more active than department store work. 

16. The Retail and Wholesale Hardware Store 

The scope. — There are eight hardware stores in Richmond, 
which employ twenty-five salesmen. Two of these are wholesale 
establishments and one of them, which has also a retail depart- 
ment, was included in the type stud}^ for the Survej-. 

Store organization.— The main branches of the organization 
are executive, office, sales, delivery and shipping. 

The sales force is divided, not into two main divisions of 
wholesale and retail, but into sections according to the commodity 
sold: Cutlery and sporting goods; builders' hardware, compris- 
ing all articles of hardware used in the construction of any form 
of building; house furnishings, consisting of cooking utensils, 
refrigerators, stoves and vacuum cleaners; paints, stains and oil; 



356 Occupational Information [Part II 

victrolas; factory tools used in all branches of manufacturing; 
factory supplies including all articles used in the equipment and 
up-keep of a factory or shop, pertaining specially to its power, 
machinery, heating and lighting; blacksmith, comprising all tools 
and raw materials used by the blacksmith trade in the building of 
new and repairing of old work, including implements; implement 
department, including gas engines, windmills, machinery, and wire 
fencing; iron and roofing department, including iron and steel 
bars, structural iron, shafting, metal and prepared roofing and 
sheet tin. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Special skill required. — A high degree of mechanical ability is 
needed in setting up and adjusting agricultural implements, 
inasmuch as most implements are received unassembled. The 
marked similarity of many parts adds difficulties in the assembling 
process. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — A salesman is 
helped by a general knowledge of mechanics received by trade 
training or experience in machine or repair shops, or by taking 
school machine shop courses. Some men, by keen observation 
and careful study, have obtained all their knowledge in the store. 
The wide awake salesman obtains information from experts who 
periodicallj^ call upon the dealer. 

The traveling salesman acquires his knowledge of merchandise 
by working in the stock room or by selling in the store. 

Mental and physical requirernents. — Mechanical ability, which 
means power to comprehend the mechanism of all the merchan- 
dise handled, is necessary for this salesman. As hardware and 
agricultural implements are heavy, the salesman must be physi- 
cally strong. 

General education. — Reading, writing and arithmetic are 
essential. 

Promotion. — From salesman to department head is an es- 
tablished line of promotion. 

Source and selection of workers. — Interview and trial are the 
accepted methods for the selection of workers. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — Work is continuous through- 
out the year. Hours are from seven a. m. to six p. m. week days 
and nine p. m. Saturdays. There is practically no overtime. 



Chap. XVIII] Mercaxtile Sales 357 

Salesmen of the road have no regular schedule of hours. They 
usually find it impossible to work on Satm-day and return to the 
store for conferences. 

Hazards and inlierent character of work. — The work requires 
one to be very active physically. There are no special strains 
or hazards. The men on the road are traveling constantly and 
are, therefore, subject to all the hazards involved in auto bus, 
interurban and steam railroad transportation. 

Wages. — Weekly wages are from ten, fifteen, eighteen, twenty- 
five to thirty dollars. 

The Local Salesman 

TT7?a^ the worker does. — The salesman helps set up, adjust and 
arrange stock; demonstrates merchandise to customers and makes 
sales, records sales by writing out slips which are shot into the 
office through a pneumatic tube; takes orders for wholesale delivery; 
receives from the office shipping orders for wholesale merchandise 
from his special department; assembles orders, marks the slip to 
indicate how the consignment is to be shipped and sends it to the 
warehouse for packing. The salesman who is head of the depart- 
ment reports when stock is low and gives suggestions to the mana- 
ger who is the buyer. 

Special knowledge required. — The knowledge required bj^ these 
salesmen is more technical in character than that of an}^ others, 
yet considered, because their customers are not casual buyers 
with mere general knowledge, but workers in the trade and experts 
who know just what the}' want and the exact purpose which the 
purchase must serve. 

The expert salesman will interest himself in the customer's needs 
and then distinguish between the general and specific in order to 
fill the needs accuratel3\ The importance of special knowledge 
may be illustrated by citing the fact that the sale of a wrong 
valve may cause a busy shop to shut down for several hours and 
cause the manufacturer the loss of fift}' dollars time to save one 
dollar in original cost. The sale of ten cents worth of improper 
lubricating oil may ruin an electric motor costing many dollars. 
The sale of the wrong ingredient may ruin the finest decorative 
job. 

The farmer's wife is not likely to buy a churn or a washing 
machine until she sees it demonstrated. A skilled painter is not 



358 Occupational Information [Part II 

easih^ convinced by a mere salesman behind the counter that a 
new kind of paint is the kind he should buy. The salesman must 
know not only how his merchandise is made and who makes it^ 
but must explain every detail of the use. This means compre- 
hension of the operations involved and includes much more than 
ordinary stock knowledge. The inability of the clerk to meet a 
situation always creates suspicion in the mind of the customer and 
will retard or make impossible the sale. The man who sells imple- 
ments to the farmer has to explain just how the implement is to 
be used, how it is adjusted and how it behaves in action. 

The Traveling Salesman 

What the worker does. — There are six traveling salesmen, 
compared with twenty-one in the store. They have only a small 
zone to cover in visiting retail stores and occasional individuals. 
They show catalogs and samples to the customer, discuss mer- 
chandise and prices, and take orders. These they write up on 
the proper forms and mail back to the main office, with which they 
must constantly keep in touch. 

Special knowledge required. — The traveling salesman must 
know stock so well that he can explain it from the catalog or print- 
ed list and become enthusiastic over the image he makes. He 
must know how to fill out forms and the value of getting informa- 
tion from the customers about the transportation of his con- 
signment. This employee has more to know than the store 
salesmen about methods of approaching and handling the customer, 
since all the advances have to come from the salesman. The sales- 
man must also be keen enough to get criticism from the retail 
storekeepers or indivdual customers of the merchandise sold in 
order to test its value and practicality and to make use of sugges- 
tions to improve the character of the output. 

17. The \^ holesale Dry Goods Store 

What the worker does. — Although the wholesale dry goods 
estabhshment visited for this study has some store workers, the 
most important salesmen are those who travel to represent the 
lousiness. They cover a zone which touches two or three states; 
they visit retail stores, many of which are in the country districts. 
They plan their own schedules, sell goods from price lists and 
catalogs, report their orders and their activities to the office every 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 359 

day. Salesmen must get new customers, visit old dealers, adjust 
complaints and ''boost" the sales. 

Special knowledge required. — First and foremost the salesman 
must know his stock. He must know all materials handled; 
their names, their characteristics, the raw materials used, how 
they are woven or manufactured, on what the price is based, and for 
what use each is best adapted. Only if he has this thorough, 
special knowledge can he explain his stock from a catalog, or wax 
eloquent over the relative merits of percale and gingham and their 
relative selling qualities in view of the prevailing styles. He 
must understand prices thoroughly and the relation between 
price and transportation, since to customers near other large 
wholesale centers, he can equalize the freight charges for the pur- 
pose of obtaining the order. 

Special skill required. — Penmanship and ability to make out 
reports are required. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special 
knowledge may only be acquired on the job, in actually handling 
and selling materials. For this reason, salesmen are recruited 
only from the stock department where experience, reading and 
talking with other workers have taught them what they know 
about textiles, store system and types of customers. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Since the personal ele- 
ment in this work is such a large factor, the personality of the sales- 
man must be pleasing. A man too finished in manner would not 
do for this work, for customers are simple and a ''good, plain man" 
is apt to get better results. 

General education required. — Salesmen for this house are not 
particularly benefited by a high school education. They must 
know how to read, write and do rudimentary but accurate figur- 
ing. An eighth grade education is entirely sufficient for the 
actual work. Grammar and spoken EngHsh need not be of a 
high grade, because of the type of customers interviewed, since 
he must run no risk of making the customer think he knows less 
or is not so good as the man serving him. 

Common deficiences of workers are found to be lack of accuracy 
and poor penmanship. 

Promotion. — Stock boys are promoted to road salesmen. 
The only other possible promotion is increased salary. 



360 Occupational Information [Part II 

Source and selection of workers. — Salesmen are chosen by 
trying out boys in the stock department and taking the most 
intelUgent and trying them in sales work. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Employment is continuous 
throughout the year. The schedule of hours is necessarily 
irregular. 

Hazards and inherent character.- — Work is outside almost 
entirely, and there are no hazards other than those involved in 
continuous travel. 

18. Mercantile Delivery 

Importance of tJie field. — Practically all retail and wholesale 
houses have a delivery department. In addition, there is a 
merchants' delivery system in Richmond, organized to deliver 
packages for small stores and merchants who have only occasional 
need of such service. 

Numbers engaged in delivery service. — In delivery service men 
are employed on full time as follows, in mercantile establishments 
of various types and in addition to many boys on part time before 
and after school and on Saturdays: 

Grocery 38 

Meat 9 

Bakery 10 

Confectionery 2 

Drug 6 

Dry Goods and Furnishings 7 

Mens' Furnishings 3 

Furniture 8 

Jewelry 1 

Florist 1 

Books and Stationery 3 

Musical Instruments . 3 

Fuel and Lumber 39 

Office Sales 12 

Hardware 8 

Produce 3 

Leather 5 

Wholesale Dry Goods 9 

Wholesale Groceries 4 

Total 171 



Chap. XVIII] Mej^cantile Sales 361 

Scope of study. — In the study of twenty establishments cover- 
ing mercantile sales, methods of delivery were included. It was 
found that eight establishments owned motor cars or trucks; 
two stores, horses and wagons; seven firms sent all packages by 
errand boys; one used the merchants' delivery and two made no 
provision whatever for delivery service to customers. 

Character of the work. — Delivery is made either by a horse and 
wagon, by motor trucks, on bicycle or on foot. The proprietor 
of an establishment which has a delivery department, owns his 
own delivery cart and horse or truck and the deli very man is 
entirely responsible to him for its care. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Common knowledge. — All deliverymen must know the store 
system, how to make out the necessary forms and how to route 
packages properly, and they must be familiar with the names and 
numbers of the city streets. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Every boy 
who enters this field must bring with him a body of prerequisite 
knowledge of how to drive a car or a horse, in addition to fa- 
miliarity with the city and surrounding territory. Famiharity with 
the system and policy of the particular establishment where he 
is employed, can only be acquired on the job. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The amount of strength 
needed depends upon the character of the merchandise handled. 
Men moving heavy furniture must be strong, but those carrying 
dry goods packages need not be. All deliverymen must have 
good memories and judgment. 

General educational requirements. — Reading and writing and 
sufficient arithmetic to make change for a c. o. d. package, are 
the only school courses which this work demands. 

Promotion. — In seven of the seventeen establishments, which 
have delivery departments, practically no advancement of 
workers was possible. In the drug store, for instance, there is 
no connection between the delivery and store service except that 
of personal contact between the errand boy and pharmacist. 
It happened, however, that a delivery boy in one store, put him- 
self through school, secured his training and became a pharmacist. 
In five stores there are, according to statements of the pro- 
prietors, opportunities to advance from the delivery to the sales 



362 Occupational Information [Part II 

department. The two furniture stores offer promotion from 
delivery to repair department. The errand boy sometimes has 
the opportunity of becoming a salesman. Delivery work is, how- 
ever, generally acknowledged to be a good example of a terminal 
job. 

Source and selection of ivorkers. — In the group of stores studied, 
dehverymen were chosen on direct application and chosen by 
interview and trial. 

Seasonableness and overtime. — The amount of overtime required 
depends upon the establishment. In grocery and flower stores 
hours are likely to be very irregular. One store has a margin 
of two extra workers who are only called upon in rush hours. 
Extra dehverymen and boys are employed during the holidays. 

Hazards and. inherent character of ivorJc. — This work has a 
slight element of danger as accidents are always possible when 
driving a team or running a motor. There are possibilities of 
strain in heavy lifting. 

The Deliveryman who Runs Motor Cars 

What the worker does. — All the motor cars used in mercantile 
delivery are gasoline cars, except one which runs by electricity. 
The deliveryman routes his packages at the store, loads them on 
the truck, delivers them to houses, receives money due on c. o. d. 
packages and reports back to the store. He is responsible for keep- 
ing his car clean and in good order. He makes minor adjustments 
but he must report to the garage any serious difficulties. Three 
establishments which use cars also send their dehverymen to the 
freight and express stations to get packages and freight. De- 
liverymen must roughly check the consignments on the spot for 
loss and damage. 

Special knowledge required. — The deliveryman must know 
as much about a machine as a good chauffeur. He must under- 
stand how to run the car, how to make minor adjustments, how 
to clean it, and when to call expert service. 

Special skill required. — Special skill consists of steering and 
running the car, and, in certain lines such as the furniture busi- 
ness, in handling merchandise without damaging it and placing 
it in the customer's rooms without injuring the wall and stairs. 



Chap. XVIIIJ Mercantile Sales 363 

The Driver 

What the worker does. — The cleliveryman who drives a horse 
collects and delivers packages in the same way that the motor 
driver handles his. He hitches and unhitches the horse, feeds 
and cares for him and cleans the wagon. 

Special knowledge required. — This worker must know how to 
harness, hitch and drive a horse as well as how to care for him. 

Special skill required. — The driver must be skillful in order to 
drive the horse carefully and swiftly. 

The Errand Boy 

What the worker does. — The errand boy is usually a part-time 
worker who delivers packages after school and on Saturday. 
He rides a bicycle or walks, and, as he carries but few packages, 
his routing is a simple matter. 

19. Training for Salesmanship 
Present Status of Training 

How obtained. — For a specific salesmanship position, there 
may be two possible ways of being trained: B}- a school course, 
day or evening, preparatory, correspondence or part-time; or by 
actual work in the store. At the present in Richmond, the 
training salespersons receive, is obtained while working on the job 
through talks with buyers, traveling salesmen and customers; 
through experience in handling merchandise; and by reading trade 
journals and publications. 

Public school courses. — At present among the cities offering- 
day courses in salesmanship in high and vocational schools, are 
New York, Boston, Minneapolis and Indianapolis. Instruc- 
tion in practically all of these courses is preparatory for depart- 
ment store work for girls, and part-time employment in the 
morning, afternoon and on Saturday, in a department, is one of 
the usual features of the courses. Man}^ evening schools in In- 
diana and other states offer instruction in salesmanship for those 
already employed in stores. 

Private and corporation school courses. — In recent years, a 
number of private tuition schools of salesmanship have developed 
and flourished. The usual method of instruction is by either 
correspondence or group study with a local leader, supplemented 



364 Occupational Information [Part II 

occasionally by a representative from the '^home office." These 
courses afford a market and advertising medium for books and 
pamphlets pubhshed by the school. 

Many corporations, in order to develop the needed efficiency 
among salesmen in marketing their products, have made pro- 
visions of various types for instructions in selling. In depart- 
ment stores, youthful workers are usually grouped in classes 
held during the slack hours of the day and instructed by a woman, 
who is usually either an employment agent or general welfare 
worker. Large manufacturing and wholesale concerns employ- 
ing male traveling salesmen, often hold short conference courses, 
during which salesmen ask questions of department heads, ex- 
change opinions and hsten to lectures by specialty men. Many 
large corporations have made permanent provisions for special 
training for salesmen. 

Variable Factors in Salesmanship 

Inherent differences in qualifications of salespersons. — This 
study of salesmanship in the retail stores of Richmond, has in- 
dicated the whole range of work required of men and women of 
widely varying mental and physical endowments, and educa- 
tional qualifications. A few examples cited from this report will 
but serve to illustrate this point. The hardware salesman must 
possess mechanical ability in order to set up and adjust machines 
and implements. The dexterous hands of the jewelry salesman 
are not needed for success in the grocery store, nor is the girl 
selling notions required to have the keen color discrimination 
and the artistic taste of the salesperson at the silk counter. Good 
looks are of more importance to the girl at the neckwear counter 
than to the one who sells hosiery. Artistic taste is not so essen- 
tial to the man who sells leather goods as to the clerk in a florist's 
shop. 

Inherent differences in commodities sold. — The wide range of 
commodities which must be sold in Richmond to meet the need 
of production, office work and consumption, occasions, of course, 
an equally wide range of materials used in producing the goods 
sold. It has been said that seventy-five per cent, of the success 
in selling consists of "knowledge about stock." The reader will 
immediately imagine the wide variety of materials handled about 
which salespersons in each respective line must be informed, by 
recalling that among the retail stores of Richmond are those selling 



Chap. XVIII] Mercantile Sales 365 

groceries, hardware, jewelry, shoes, dry goods and furnishings, 
ready made garments, furniture, flowers, and candy and ice 
cream. It may truthfully be said that in meeting the consump- 
tion of the people of any community, all the peoples of the world 
must contribute the best of their productive activities. 

Inherent differences in education required. — For salespersons 
in book stores, a college education is an asset; for furniture sales- 
men, a general education rich in historical content about manners 
and customs of various people and periods and their homes and 
furnishings is valuable; and the demonstrator of a complicated 
agricultural implement is greatly profited by a technical educa- 
tion. On the other hand, it can scarcely be honestly contended 
that a general education beyond the sixth grade is needed for sell- 
ing in the five and ten cent store, or that an education beyond 
the ninth grade is a marketable asset for the grocery clerk. 

Constant Factors in Salesmanship 

Fundamentals underlying study of merchandise. — While actual 
differences in stock knowledge required of salespersons handling 
various commodities, are vital and oftentimes great, there are 
certain fundamental basic elements underlying the study of mer- 
chandise: Knowledge of the industries of the United States and 
Europe; centers of production of commodities of various types; 
source and composition of raw materials, and methods of trans- 
ferring raw materials into finished products, including study of 
color, pattern and design. 

Economics of mercantile trade. — The content, of the econom- 
ics of mercantile trade about which all salespersons should be 
informed regardless of the commodity sold, includes the follow- 
ing: The world's producing, buying and selling markets; rudiments 
about traffic and transportation; basic reasons for variations in 
market prices; the relation between wholesale and retail trade; 
the basis of fixing selling prices; and methods of displaying and 
advertising goods. 

Technique of meeting customers. — The types of customers with 
whom salespersons have to deal are constant, regardless of the pur- 
chase the customer seeks to make. The classification reported 
in the Minneapolis Survey is suggestive: ''The customer looking 
for a definite thing; the one not knowing just what to bu}^; the 
customer who is just curious about what is for sale. The first 



366 Occupational Infoemation [Part II 

tj^pe of customer must be convinced that the salesperson can 
show either the very object desired or something better; the 
second type is open to persuasion; and the third must be attracted 
and won." 

Suggestions Concerning Training for Salesmanship 

Salesmariship, a splendid field for men. — The widespread 
pul Uc attention focussed upon schemes for training young girls 
for department store positions, has had a tendency to create the 
impression in the minds of young men that the field of selling is 
of most worth and promise to young women. The Richmond 
Survey shows that men predominate in the field, at the ratio of 
three to one, and that in only two types of stores, the dry goods 
and five and ten cent stores, are women in the majority. Prac- 
tically all positions of major responsibility in the Richmond stores 
are held by men. Probably this condition will continue to exist. 
Nor is Richmond peculiar in this respect. According to the re- 
port of 1910 census of occupations of residents of Indiana, there 
were about 90,000 salespersons in the State, seventy per cent, 
of whom were males. The following census figures about numbers 
employed in this field in the State are illuminative: 

Males Females 

Salespersons in stores 26,639 10,647 

Retail dealers 32,093 1,237 

Brokers and agents 8 , 338 1 , 210 

Commercial travelers and demonstrators 6, 854 361 

Total 73,924 13,455 

Schemes for training for salesmen must be broad enough to 
adequately throw open the possibilities of selling to promising 
young men, and teach, in so far as possible, the basic aspects of 
merchandising necessary for entrance, proficiency and promo- 
tion. 

The school's responsibility. — Classes in salesmanship for youths 
who liave not yet entered the field as wage-earners, and for those 
who are salespersons but who seek organized instruction, must 
be organized on an entirely different basis. Classes for the former 
must include the fundamental common elements of mercantile 
salesmanship, and, for the latter, the distinctive problem peculiar 
to commodities sold and store organization. There is no question 
but that the pubhc schools have a direct responsibility in offering 



Chap. XVIII] Meecantile Sales dB? 

preparatory courses for those who seek this type of employment. 
Although this Survey has revealed some of the constant as well 
as variable factors involved, the study was neither broad nor 
intensive enough to submit a complete bill of particulars which 
might be accepted without challenge. A detailed and intensive 
study to determine the solid, common ground underlying all 
sales work, should be made at once, since the field is so promising 
and public interest is so great. No texts are yet available which 
touch the real problem, since practically all works on salesmanship 
discuss only such common requisites as reliability of character, 
ambition, patience and tact, all of which underlie salesman's 
success no more than that of a doctor, a mechanic or a nurse. 
A reliable, helpful text cannot be written until the intensive study 
suggested is made. 

The course of the future for those preparing for salesmanship, — 
To understand the composition and manufacturing of stuffs, 
textiles, silverware, rugs, etc., a salesman must have a knowledge 
of applied chemistry; to appreciate and explain patterns in tex- 
tiles and jewelry, fashions of hats and costumes as well as to ar- 
range displays on counters and in windows, a salesman must 
have training in design, color and harmony of line and space. 
English, penmanship and arithmetic are necessary for sales rec- 
ords, and practical economics. 

A study of applied economics, including mercantile traffic and 
transportation, is necessary in marking goods and setting prices. 
Commercial geography and industrial studies are necessary in 
obtaining a knowledge of the world's producing, buying and 
selling markets and manufacturing processes. The course of the 
future must contain at least all these basic elements. 

These suggestions constitute an hypothesis, that there might 
be worked out for salesmanship, a course in a way analogous to a 
general course in pedagogy, psychology, sociology and history, 
now required of all w^ho enter the teacher's profession. No 
such courses at present are available for salesmanship*. The 
vague and vaporous books on personality, conduct and adver- 
tising, which are current in schools of salesmanship and corre- 
spondence courses, at present offer a mere starting point for the 
salesmanship course of the future, which will take such generali- 
ties for granted and begin with specific studies. 



368 Occupational Information [Part II 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The Survey Committee, recognizing the breadth of the field 
of mercantile sales, and its importance to the entire community, 
including salespersons, proprietors and the buying public, urges 
that in the Junior High School a general information course be 
organized throwing open the possibilities and requirements of this 
broad field for both male and female workers. 

As a part of the broad commercial education proposed for the 
commercial department of the Senior High School, one unit should 
be the elements of merchandising, indicated in the text of this 
report on Mercantile Sales. 

In all probability, as our knowledge of the field of mercan- 
tile sales increases, it will be possible and desirable to offer voca- 
tional preparatory courses in the Senior High School for young 
people desiring to enter this field. Such courses, however, must 
deal largely with manufacturing processes, knowledge of stock and 
technique of store procedure, rather than generalities regarding 
the theory of selling. 

Salespersons in Richmond would be greatly benefited by 
part-time day and evening courses in salesmanship. The estab- 
lishment of such courses for those already employed is urged. 
Enrollment and classification of studies would have to be made 
on the basis of experience in the trade and goods sold. 

Proprietors of all types of large and small stores in Richmond 
would greatly appreciate and profit by courses in business organ- 
ization and methods. This need cannot be met locally by the 
Richmond Board of Education but will have to be done on a Uni- 
versity Extension Basis. The need for such courses is referred 
to Indiana and Purdue Universities. 



CHAPTER XIX 



COMMERCIAL 



EMPLOYMENT: 
SERVICE 



TELEPHONE 



Not a local utility. — One of the most important public utilities 
perfected during this century is the telephone. The life and 
business of everj^ community is so dependent upon it, that it has 
become scarcely less essential to social living than facilities for 
lighting and heating. Like the telegraph and railroad, the tele- 



b 


^& 


_^' ill i 


■H^K^i^h^^^^^Ebi i 


^HpH 


m Q 


jB 


"^^^^^^^^^^IbL— 


^ 


B 




1 ._■* 



The Alodern Telephone Office is Equipped with All Modern Conveniences- 
Note the Automatic Telephone in the Center of the 
Picture. 



phone binds communities together in an endless chain of con- 
stant intercommunication. It lends greater speed, accuracy and 
personal influence to all former means of communication, until 
every phase of business has been revolutionized to gain the ad- 
vantages its use has made possible. In a cit}^ like Richmond, 
the telephone has become the link which most intimately binds 

(369; 
24 — 5463 



370 Occupational Information [Part II 

it to all other cities and country districts within a radius of a hun- 
dred miles. It's use has become, not only locally constant, but 
so universal that in a few years it has standardized in some meas- 
ure the occupations involved. This is especially true of the long 
distance or toll operator, the accuracy of whose work, is analogous 
to that of the telegraph operator. 

Departmental occupations.— The telephone service involves the 
construction, maintenance and operating departments. Only the 
occupations employing women and girls are here studied. Women 
have everywhere a definite share of work in the telephone 
service. In other cities studied they are found to be employed 
for office work in larger numbers than men and have exclusive 
possession of the traffic or operating room. In Richmond where 
the automatic system is used, operators are employed only for 
Long Distance lines, for Information and for ^'Trouble." Clerical 
work is discussed in Chapter XX, ^'Office Service." 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Mental and physical requirements of workers. — Telephone 
work as performed either by the trouble clerk or toll operator 
requires nervous energy. A girl of phlegmatic temperament can- 
not maintain the high speed tension required to handle her number 
combinations and keep in mind the stage of advancement of each 
call which she is '^putting through." At the same time she must 
have nerves that are strong and steady to enable her to answer in 
an unruffled manner half a dozen incoming calls while she attends 
to those already received, which is another way of saying that 
the operator needs the quality of patience. She must have ac- 
curate and sensitive hearing, good eyesight and a naturally good 
voice. Her sense and muscular co-ordination must be above the 
average since good service depends upon the instantaneous re- 
sponse of the hands and the brain to varying lights and sounds. 
The girl with heavy clumsy hands would be at a great disadvan- 
tage at the switch board. 

The purely mental side of the work involves no analysis, and 
to a slight degree, as compared with other kinds of work requires 
such mental endowments as imagination and reasoning. It does, 
however, require an adequate memory and the power of organiz- 
ing detail sufficiently to follow a definite system of work. Mechan- 
ical ability has a real value to the trouble clerk. 

General education required. — Because tickets, tally cards and 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 371 

report sheets must be filled out, involving considerable calcula- 
tion of rates, a toll or trouble operator must be a good penman 
and must understand rudimentary arithmetic. Spelling and 
English are very important, and especially, good spoken English 
since an operator is frequently called upon to transmit messages. 
Geography is a basic study which operators need in locating di- 
rections and localities in '^handling" a call. When a subscriber 
asks for a certain town, the operator must know at once whether 
it is west or east in order to connect with the nearest exchange. 
But since certain physical and personal qualities of the workers 
are of prime importance, the statement is probably accurate that 
an ordinary elementary school education is sufficient for success 
in this work. 

Source and selection of workers. — Few changes are made from 
one year's end to another. Usually a friend of a girl already 
employed is taken on, if there is an opening. She is given an 
interview and must be able to refer the company to someone who 
knows her, for a character recommendation. She is then given 
a trial. Girls experienced on a local switchboard, or, better still, 
in long distance operating, are preferred to inexperienced girls. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — Although each group of workers 
is on a shift which will be described later, the hours are definitely 
prescribed and there is no overtime. Such work is not season- 
able, but continues throughout the year. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There is no danger of 
any sort from machines. The work is sedentary and confining. 
It is not possible to tell without a series of accurate laboratory 
studies whether there is much nervous strain or impairment to 
health in telephone operating. Certainly it is true that there are 
times when the work must be exhausting. Attention must be 
maintained constantly at a certain pitch and since the personal 
element of voice and manner enters into every telephone call, 
the girl cannot relax unless the number of calls diminish. For this 
reason the telephone company gives rest periods of a few minutes 
once or twice a day, as the operators desire. 

The Toll Department 

Four "positions in the department. — In this department there 
are four distinct positions : (1) The toll operators, always the newest 
girls in the stage of initiation, who answer all local calls from 



372 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



pay stations and all those from farm subscribers; (2) the toll oper- 
ators who may take either incoming or outgoing calls; (3) the chief 
operator who handles the information board except when needed 
for other work, supervises the department and teaches new opera- 




The Operating Room with the Automatic System Only. Six Operators Are 
Required. They Put Through Farm and Long Distance Calls. 



tors; and (4) the night operator who has charge of all the lines and 
information throughout the night. Besides the chief operator, 
there are eight day operators and one night operator, only five of 
whom are usually on at a time. 



Facts Common to All Toll Operators 

The apparatus used. — Every operator in this department 
must know how to manipulate a switch board. This mechanism 
is familiar to almost everyone in its elementary form found in the 
private branch exchanges in every factory, store, hotel and rail- 
road station of any size. The board in the central telephone 
office is large and complex, although a toll board, which is the only 
one used here, is much smaller and no more complex than a local 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 373 

operating board. The operator must understand the meaning of 
the hghts which flash in and out on the boards, how to operate the 
keys and how to ''plug in" with the metal terminal rubber tube 
which fits into any one of the ''jacks." Every operator has a 
certain bank of numbers or "jacks" before her, although she may 
at any time help other operators by picking up their numbers on 
the "multiple." When the light appears she places the plug in 
the "jack" to connect the subscriber with the central switch board, 
then opens the key which connects the operator with the sub- 
scriber, finally placing another plug, complementary to the first, 
in its "jack" to connect the operator with the number desired. 

Special skill required. — The skill required consists merely in 
manipulating the rubber tubes and keys, placing the plugs in the 
jacks, and using whatever devices are accessory to her keyboard, 
such as stamping and timing toll tickets. All mechanism handled 
is small and such rapidity is required that the operator's hands 
must act, not only swiftly, but independently of each other. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill in telephone operating may only be acquired on the 
job. The telephone company expects to offer the necessary 
training, and, from the very beginning, pays a salary of eighteen 
dollars a month to those who are learning. The chief operator 
teaches the girl rudimentary facts about switch board operating 
on a dummy board, or on a section of a real board not in use; 
she also gives the beginner rule books and codes to learn and con- 
ducts recitations just as a private tutor would in coaching a pupil. 
In a larger company, instructions are given to classes in a regular 
recitation room with full dummj^ equipment and the instructor 
devotes practically all her time to teaching. In Richmond it is 
said to require about three months for an operator to become 
sufficiently initiated to be useful at the switchboard. At present 
the beginner is usually the farm operator. 

Promotion and wages. — As has been indicated, the newest 
operator is started at answering farm calls, then promoted to toll 
operating. The chief operator is the head of the department. 
Operators are started at eighteen dollars per month while learn- 
ing and increased to twenty-five dollars after three months. 
Those who make good receive gradual increases until thirty-two 
dollars a month is reached, which is a fixed limit. Sunday work 
is paid at the rate of fifteen cents an hour for a short day and one 
dollar for the long day. 



374 Occupational Information [Part II 

Hours. — The hours of the shifts may be summarized as follows: 

3 come at seven a. m. and work until five p. m. 

2 come at seven a. m. and work until twelve noon, and are 
free from then until five p. m., when they return and work until 
nine p. m. 

1 comes at ten thirty a. m. and works until eight p. m. 

1 comes at eleven thirty a.m. and works until nine p. m. 

The chief operator works from nine a. m. to five p. m. 

The night operator comes at nine p. m. and works until seven 
a. m. 

Each worker, except the night operator, has to work one Sun- 
day during the month, alternating an entire day's work with a 
short day of four or five hours. 

Rotation of operators. — With the exception of the night operator, 
the workers in this department interchange positions at the board 
so that, unless there is a new employee at the farm subscriber's 
board, who does not shift her place, each operator is able to do 
the other's work. The girls take turns substituting for chief op- 
erator in giving information, but when the '^chief" is away the 
most experienced toll operator becomes the arbiter of mooted 
points. 

The Farm Operator 

What the worker does. — The farm operator takes care of over 
three hundred stations since all calls from rural subscribers are 
made through the central office in the same way that all local 
calls are handled where the automatic device is not in use. She 
also takes all local calls from paj^ stations. She must give in case 
of fire or ''mad dog," six short rings called the ''emergency ring," 
which reaches every rural station. Every night between four 
and five she receives the official weather report from the United 
States Weather Bureau. (This is a striking instance of modern 
co-operation between government and private corporation, to 
annihilate chstance and bring the results of scientific research 
immediately to thousands of scattered individuals.) If the sub- 
scriber calls for long distance, the operator merely "plugs in" 
to connect him with the toll board. 

Special knowledge required. — The farm operator must know 
how to give the emergency ring and how to transmit the weather 
report, how to pass on a long distance call to the toll operator, 
and how to operate the dial in order to call a Richmond number 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 375 

The Toll Recording Operator 

What the worker does. — The girl in this position takes all in- 
coming calls from Richmond subscribers for long distance to 
other stations. She answers, ^'This is long distance," and as she asks 
questions of the subscribers, she writes down upon a ticket the 
subscriber's name, number and the person wanted in the other 
city. She looks up the rate and route, then says, ''one moment 
please," and after placing the ticket in the stamping machine 
to record the time of receiving the call, she passes the ticket to 
the toll line operator and by plugging in from her board connects 
the subscriber with the toll line operator. 

Special knowledge required. — For incoming calls the operator 
must know the proper form in which to make out tickets. She 
must know rating and routes; how to look them up and how, 
when necessary, to figure combination tolls. Most rates have 
already been determined and printed in a schedule which hangs 
in front of the operator. Rates to unfamiliar or unknown places 
must be found in either or both of the company's books. If the 
rate is still not available, she must find the location of the town 
on the map and compute the rate by laying a graduated measure 
upon the chart which is scientifically drawn to scale and shows 
the different rate zones in Indiana. The rule indicates in what 
zone the located town falls. Such procedure is of course an unusual 
necessity but one which every operator must be ready to meet. 

If the subscriber does not know the number of his party, the 
operator has to look it up for which necessary provision is made 
by keeping telephone books on hand from every possible point 
in the United States. When the ticket is completely made out 
with the names, numbers, rates and stations, the recording op- 
erator must know how to stamp it in the time recording machine. 
She must know the prescribed code for carrying on telephone 
work. She must answer for instance, "This is long distance," 
when the subscriber rings in. If she says merely, ''Long Dis- 
tance," the subscriber might think the phrase an interrogation, 
requiring the answer "Yes, I want long distance," which exchange 
involves the waste of several precious seconds. 

The Toll Line Operator 

What the worker does. — A girl in this position, and there are 
always two and sometimes four, makes the connections between 
the subscriber and the party wanted in the other city. Taking 



376 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

the tickets from the recording operator, she rings the long dis- 
tance operator in the city wanted, and if it is a call which must be 
passed on through another long distance station, she rings the 
operator in the larger station on the route of the call. She then 
repeats the information from the ticket and asks, according to the 
distance involved, for the kind of line wanted; a ''long haul" for 
distant points and 'Very long haul" for extreme distances. It is 
the first operator, taking the original call, who figures out the 
kind of line necessary. She does this by consulting the company's 
books which state, on a basis of scientific computation, what kind 
of line is wanted to carry a call with the greatest efficiency. The 
operator in the other city receiving such a call has no figuring to 
do. She simply says, "Right," and fulfills directions, passing the 
call on to the line specified. 

The toll line operator also has, on occasion, to repeat messages 
in case the party wanted has no telephone. She has to devise 
ways of getting a call through. For example, in case the party 
wanted has no telephone the operator tries to find a neighboring 
station to which he might be summoned. When the call is com- 
pleted, the operator places the ticket again in the stamping ma- 
chine, of which there is one for every operator, and stamps the 
time at which the call was finished, computing the exact time used 
by the party calling. The toll line operator also receives calls to 
Richmond from other stations, makes the connections for the 
subscriber by use of the automatic dial and co-operates with the 
operator sending the call in trying to find the party or in securing 
some information concerning him. 

For long distance and local pay station calls, tickets are made 
out according to prices. The operator tells the person calling 
to drop in the required number of coins. She holds the party 
until the money is dropped. Each coin gives a different ring, 
which she must be able to distinguish, as well as to tell if the sum 
is correct. She hands these tickets to the bookkeeper. 

Special knowledge required. — The operator must know geog- 
raphy in order to be able to decide quickly which direction a 
call must be routed and which is the right station to ring. She 
must also understand what circuits to use and what kind of line 
to ask for. 

She must understand the company system of toll tickets. 
She must know how to handle human beings of every kind and 
how to advise methods for getting a call "through." This often 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 377 

involves patient waiting first for one party and then for the other 
to be ready to talk to each other. She must know what to refer 
to the chief operator. 

The long distance operator must be familiar with the code 
method of communication with other operators, using uniform 
symbols instead of complete sentences. She says for example, 
''Mr. Brown, U X L W," instead of ''Mr. Brown is out, is not in 
the city and I left word for him to call." 

It is the policy of this particular office to require the operator 
who arrives first in the morning to go over all toll tickets, and, 
of those calls which were lost the day before, to select the ones 
likely to go "through" if tried again. The operator calls up the 
original party and asks if she may try again to call her number. 
Thus thousands of calls are saved for the company throughout the 
year. The operator must understand salesmanship in telephone 
work. Her voice, her manner, her willingness to please are all 
assets for the sale of service. There are also definite schemes 
for obviating the loss of a call. Aside from doing everything 
she can to accomplish a call, the operator tries to find someone 
else to talk if the party called for is out. For instance, the opera- 
tor who says, "Mr. Brown is out but Mrs. Brown will talk," 
at once presents a picture of a woman waiting at the telephone. 
If the person calling has any imagination, he will gallantly hasten 
to relieve Mrs. Brown of the suspense and the call is saved for 
the telephone company. If the call does not go through success- 
fully, the operator must know how to report the reasons for the 
failure on the ticket. She must also know how to use the stamping 
machine for recording time. 

The Night Operator 

What the worker does. — The night operator has full charge of 
the department, information, local and long distance calls, all of 
which she handles from one switch board by the use of the "mul- 
tiple." After a certain hour she arranges her board so that a bell 
will ring instead of a light flashing, and she can either read, do 
fancy work or sleep as temperament dictates. 

Part of her work is to sort out all toll tickets which have been 
filled during the day. She does this for the purpose of deter- 
mining what calls went through and which were lost or cancelled, 
as well as the number of calls handled by each operator. She 
sorts the tickets first by stations and then by operators and com- 
putes the total amounts. 



378 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required. — Everything which the night opera- 
tor must know, except the preparation of reports on the toll work 
of the previous day, have been described in the above discussion. 
There is nothing complicated in this task and the method of doing 
it is easily acquired. 

The Chief Operator 

What the worker does. — Aside from being in charge of the en- 
tire department, the chief operator answers all information calls 
which sometimes amount to twenty-five hundred a day. 

All long distance calls, where the party is unknown or cannot 
be found, are referred to her and it is her task to think out ways 
of reaching the desired person. She must take all calls which are 
reported ''do not answer." She refers them to the trouble clerk 
and waits for a report which she repeats to the calling operator. 

All adjustments are made by the chief operator; mistakes in 
rates, disagreements with operators in other cities and dissatis- 
faction expressed by individuals using the telephone. She makes 
out all schedules of work and hours for operators. She super- 
vises every detail of the activities of the operating room. All 
delayed calls are referred to her after a certain time has elapsed 
and she takes them up with the chief operators in other stations. 
She is also responsible for the instruction of all operators, and to 
some extent for their selection. She is responsible herself for 
mastering, and then teaching, all changes in the system of opera- 
ting. 

She prepares reports every day from the rough notes given 
her by the night operator on the calls handled the previous day. 
On her report sheet she records for each operator the number of 
hours on toll, the number of messages which ''went through" 
and the number of messages lost, the percentage lost, the average 
messages received per hour, what lines were busiest, and the 
attendance and tardy record of each worker. She makes out a 
weekly statement from this time sheet, a monthly statement and 
summary every thirty days. 

Special knowledge required. — The chief operator must know 
every process of local and long distance operating "from start 
to finish" and know it with the best possible technique. A 
knowledge of all the rules and regulations of the company is re- 
quired. She must be so ingenious that she can invent ways of 
getting a call through where other operators have failed. In 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 379 

case of emergencies, she must know what to do. It is also neces- 
sary that she be able to teach new operators the entire field of 
duties and to coach other operators in any new codes and rules 
which may be adopted by the company. She must realize the 
value of personal acquaintance with the other chief operators 
for the purpose of securing accommodations and special attention. 
An opportunity of making such acquaintances is afforded by 
state meetings of chief operators. 

Trouble Department 
The Trouble Clerk 

Two girls sit at the trouble operating board and all calls which 
do not go through for any reason are referred to them ; that is when 
a subscriber cannot get a number he rings trouble, or when long 
distance calls do not go through the operator asks always for a 
line test from the trouble clerk. 

What the worker does: Clerical work. — The duties of the 
trouble clerk are of two kinds, clerical and mechanical. The trouble 
clerk places on a form sheet the telephone number of the 
party wanted, also the exact time; she then says, ''Wait a moment," 
and tests both lines for trouble by the testing device. If there is 
trouble, she locates it as being inside trouble or outside trouble 
by the testing device which indicates the nature of the difficulty. 
If it is inside trouble, she makes out a ticket recording the time 
the trouble was reported; for instance, "Get W No" means ''Sub- 
scriber keeps getting wrong number." She records her own num- 
ber and the two telephone numbers affected. When the trouble 
has been located and adjusted, the ticket is returned to the 
trouble clerk, and she checks on the sheet what lines are now O. K. 
in a column which indicates that it was inside trouble. 

If the trouble is outside, she pulls toward her a file of the 
subscribers, which stands just back of the operator's board; turns 
to the right number in the file, and, withdrawing the card, she 
marks the data upon it. When the linemen have located and 
repaired the trouble, the operator marks in the proper column 
on the report sheet, and also upon the subscriber's card which is 
replaced, the fact that the line is O. K. 

Each day's work is summarized for a daily report sheet which 
divides the telephone lines up in groups of thousands. Locating 
the number to be reported on in its proper group, she marks down 
what she calls the "code trouble." These daily sheets are entered 



380 Occupational Information [Part II 

after two days in a book in which are recorded the condition of 
every subscriber's telephone throughout the year. She follows 
the same form as used in the daily sheet, recording for each tele- 
phone number the fact that trouble was reported; the kind of 
trouble it proved to be; the date; and when it was repaired. 

The condition of the line throughout the whole year may be 
seen at a glance by following this record. 1. If it is blank or has 
only one or two notations, the line has been in good condition; 
2, if it is black with figures, it may have been in trouble a great 
deal; or, 3, if it is covered with ^'M 3" notations, it has been re- 
ported busy very often. In this last case the record is 
made a basis of sales. The record of ''busy'' becomes a 
''talking point" for an additional line to the subscriber who 
is brought up in person to confront the book. There he 
sees the actual record of how many people have desired to 
get his number during the year and were unable to do so 
only because it was busy. This is urged as inconvertible 
proof that he needs an extra line. Thus it is seen that the yearly 
record of "trouble" is very valuable as providing a check on not 
only efficiency, but in inducing sales. 

What the worker does: Mechanical work. — The testing ap- 
paratus consists of a regulation telephone desk with switch board 
where subscribers calling trouble ring in. On each side of it are 
duplicate testing boards. Each board is equipped with thirteen 
keys like ordinary operating keys and an electric Voltmeter, on 
whose dial the needle is seen to swing across a scale from 1 to 75. 

When trouble is reported, the first move of the clerk is to 
test the condenser by opening the Voltmeter key and the revers- 
ing key. The condenser will be discharged and then charged in 
the opposite direction which causes a slight deflection of the needle. 
This is called the "condenser kick." If this occurs, the line is 
perfectly clear and nothing further need be done. If trouble is 
indicated by test one, the operator then opens the grounding 
key and the reverse key to test each side of the line. If there is 
no movement of the needle, the fine is clear. A battery reading 
is taken to determine if the exchange batteries are affected or 
if the subscriber's batteries are in trouble. If the reading 
indicates connection with a battery foreign to the line in use, it 
may mean a crossed line. A normal battery reading is 48 Volt- 
meter. 

If trouble is indicated, the operator opens the "bridge key" 



Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 381 

to cut the line in two in order to test the trouble as being inside 
or outside of the exchange. If inside trouble is indicated, she 
determines, if possible, what the nature of the trouble is by a few 
simple tests. Then she rings a bell to summon the switch man to 
adjust the trouble. If outside trouble is -reported, the operator 
again determines what the nature of it is. It may be a ground 
wire, a crossed line, an open line, or a short circuit. A short 
circuit reading would show about sixty-five depending upon the 
distance of the trouble from the exchange. 

Every little while during the day, trouble men report to the 
trouble operator and receive directions for repair work. Part 
of this operator's duty is to work with these men when they are 
out on the line, because, in order to locate the trouble, they must 
call in to central from the cable box located at the subscriber's 
line, testing until they find the trouble. The operator answers 
on the line, using a bridge "cut off key" in doing so. When the 
line is repaired the trouble clerk reports the fact to the subscriber. 

If the long distance department reports trouble, the wire 
chief is called by the trouble clerk. The wire chief also works 
with the linemen instead of the trouble clerk, if the high resistance 
trouble is found, since it is easier on a man to work with a noisy, 
''leaky" wire. 

Special knowledge required. — The trouble clerk must have a 
very thorough knowledge of the system used in this company. 
She must understand how to make out all forms and reports and 
how to use the file. She must be able to read the dial. She must 
know how to use her switch board although this does not mean 
she has to be a regular telephone operator. She must know how to 
test the line for outside and inside trouble, and to understand why 
she is doing various things so that she may act not merely mechan- 
ically but with real intelligence. She must know how to work 
most efficiently with the trouble men who are fixing the line. 

The head trouble clerk must also be able to teach what is 
involved in her work to her assistant, who must know practically 
everything the chief knows, except perhaps how to work with the 
trouble men. 

Special skill required. — The normal skill required is very sHght 
and involves only swift manipulation of the keys. Just as for 
telephone operating, a girl with deft hands has a great advantage 
over one with clumsy hands. Penmanship is also essential since 
all reports and tickets are made out by hand. 



382 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 




Chap. XIX] Telephone Service 383 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Specific in- 
struction is given by the chief trouble clerk to her assistant. The 
code expressions for trouble are printed in a little book which 
may be refererd to, but most of which must be memorized. The 
chief operator from the toll department gives instructions in the 
technique of handling the public. The present chief trouble op- 
erator learned her duties in about ten weeks sufficiently well to 
handle the board. Expertness in reading the dial and making 
the tests requires months of work. An operator interested in the 
mechanical side of the work has indefinite possibilities of learning 
and developing efficiency. 

A girl with intelligence finds no difficulty in learning her 
duties in the beginning. Beyond a few general facts she does 
not have to know the mechanics of the test of methods used by line- 
men in repairing trouble. She need only know what keys to open 
and how to take the readings. 

Promotion. — A new girl is started in this department as as- 
sistant to the chief trouble clerk. She may be promoted to chief 
trouble clerk or assistant to the wire chief. She might possibly 
go from this position to the office. This position is not in advance 
of toll operators, but equal to them in opportunity and remunera- 
tion. 

Hours. — The two clerks work on a shift. One of them works 
from seven-thirty a. m. to one p. m. and from five to eight p. m. 
The other works from seven-thirty a. m. to five-thirty p. m. 

Wages. — The salary is the same as for telephone operating, 
ranging from eighteen to thirty-two dollars a month. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The telephone service of Richmond gives employment to men 
in the construction and maintenance departments, and women 
in the operating department and the office. For the men in the 
maintenance department, where a high degree of special skills 
are required, the necessary courses of instruction are provided in 
Chicago by the Automatic Telephone Company. The men in this 
line of work in Richmond take advantage of this opportunity. 

The women in the operating department are trained by the 
chief operator and a special instructor who spends part of her 
time in Richmond. As the Telephone Company makes adequate 
provision for training its workers, the Richmond schools have no 
obligation for vocational courses for these lines of work. 



384 Occupational Information [Part II 

The company is willing to co-operate with the commercial 
department of the Senior High School in providing equipment and 
assisting in giving instruction in the use of the telephone to young 
people w^ho will be employed in the Richmond offices and stores. 
As the proper use of the telephone is of primal importance in com- 
mercial work and training, the Survey Committee urges the schools 
to take advantage of this offer. 

The Survey Committee recommends that the Richmond school 
through its physical training department, co-operate with the tele- 
phone company in providing the necessary opportunities for phys- 
ical recreation for women operators. 



CHAPTER XX 



COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT: OFFICE SERVICE 

Office work has been so thoroughly studied in the last few years 
in other parts of the country and its occupations are so universally 
similar in requisite technique, that further pictures of oppor- 
tunity and duties are not so much needed, as scientific analysis 
of requirements and qualifications of workers. Both the Rich- 
mond, Virginia, and the Minneapolis Survey Reports contain 
detailed discussions of office work. The Cleveland Survey issues 
a book, ''Boys and Girls in Commercial Work," which differen- 
tiates between training and opportunities for boys and girls. 
Two other books of real worth on the same subject are, ''Com- 
mercial Work and Training for Girls," — MacMillan Company; 
and "Women in Office Service," — Boston Woman's Educational 
and Industrial Union, Boston, Massachusetts. 

Comparative number of men and women employed. — ^ Although 
interviews with employers have indicated that there is a certain 
demand in Richmond for male stenographers and bookkeepers 
and although the commercial teachers in the high school state 
that they have not been able to supply that demand, yet the fact 
remains that only twenty per cent, of the stenographers reported 
in Richmond are males, that bookkeepers are about evenly di- 
vided between the sexes, and that male cashiers predominate at 
about the ratio of two to one. It is very significant to note that 
there are six men to one woman employed as clerks, tellers, etc. 
In Richmond the various office pursuits give employment to a 
total of about 600 males and 200 females. 

The United States census shows that in Indiana in 1910, 
38,570 workers were employed in "clerical pursuits," of whom 
23,871 were males and 14,899 females, distributed as follows, 
by occupations: Stenography, 1,093 males and 6,639 females; 
clerks and shipping clerks, 11,723 males, 2,284 females; and book- 
keepers, cashiers and accountants, 6,752 males, 5,345 females. 
Thus, 85 per cent, of the stenographic positions were held by 
women, and 83 per cent, of the ledger and cost-clerk positions by 
men. From these figures, it is seen that the Richmond distribu- 
tion of men and women in office positions is about the same as 
might be expected from the census returns. 

(385) 
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386 



Occupational Information 



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388 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

It will be noted that the majority of office workers in Rich- 
mond are employed in factory offices. The Richmond retail 
stores employ but few office workers as compared with large 
city stores; sixty-four per cent, of the retail stores reporting no 
office emploj^ees. Small offices in large cities each employ one 
or two stenographers or general office workers, but in Richmond 
the majority of small offices employ none. Seven law offices re- 
port one office worker, and seven others none. Not one physician 
or architect has office assistants, indeed fifty-four of the offices 
reporting to the Survey have no employees. 

The scope. — Special studies of office service were made in 
factories and retail stores only because thirty to fifty per cent, 
of all workers reporting were in these two fields, and because the 
work required within them was of wider scope than in the small 
office of the municipal office. Of the occupations shown in the 
table, there are included in this special study: The stenographer, 
the bookkeeper, the cashier, the cost clerk. 

The Stenographer 

The scope. — The Survey census report shows twenty-six men 
and eighty-seven women stenographers. This occupation was 
especially analyzed in those establishments where type studies 
were made. Of the twenty retail stores, only four employ 
stenographers, of whom one is also a bookkeeper. One of the three 
factory offices specially studied and the telephone company office 
had no stenographer and the two factory offices each employed 
two. 

What the worker does: Regular duties. — The stenographer, 
by means of abbreviations, letters and word symbols, records 
verbal statements, after which she transcribes them on the type- 
writer. To master the work involves the knowledge of an alphabet 
of characters used to express words phonetically. In addition 
to phonetic spelling, short cuts are made by the use of ''word 
signs," which may represent whole phrases. Some systems of 
shorthand also vary the position of the symbol in relation to the 
line, and shade the pencil stroke, while others use neither posi- 
tion nor shading. Technique involves rapid writing of symbols 
and accurate transcription of notes. 

In addition to writing letters, which usually requires the 
greater portion of the time of the stenographer, the work of nine 



Chap. XX] Office Service 389 

stenographers studied, two of whom are men, involves answer- 
ing the telephone, receiving visitors, and assisting the bookkeeper 
and cashier. 

Special knowledge required. — The special knowledge required 
involves thorough mastery of a system of shorthand, the ability 
to transcribe notes rapidly and accurately; the fundamentals 
of bookkeeping; and general office procedure, including receiving 
visitors, answering the telephone, weighing packages, and cor- 
rectly stamping them, and correctly using filing devices and card 
catalog systems. 

What the worker does : Special duties. — One of the stenographers 
in addition to the duties already described, is also a bookkeeper 
keeping summaries of receipts and expenditures, records of charge 
accounts with a tickler system, and all mailing lists. Another 
stenographer, employed in a retail store, keeps the cost book, 
makes out on the typewriter the monthly bills of all customers, 
takes charge of the c. o. d. nioney returned on delivered packages 
and keeps the daily ledger. Another attends to mail order busi- 
ness and helps typewrite customer's monthly bills. In two of 
the factories the stenographer was required to do billing and 
filing and in the other, to accurately copy and record all specifica- 
tions and contracts. 

Special skill required. — ^In stenography, skill consists of making 
clear outlines in taking notes, and of using the typewriter with 
accuracy and speed. The latter is analogous to the mechanics 
of playing the piano and requires the same dexterity of each 
finger acting separately and the proper position of the hand 
above the keyboard. The stenographer should also understand 
the mechanics of her tool, the typewriter, so that she may quickly 
change ribbons and make minor adjustments. Considering the 
wide range of the stenographer's work in Richmond, she should 
be able to operate adding and posting machines. 

General education required. — The relation between general educa- 
tion and success in stenography is positive. The Richmond High 
School course is so organized that none can be considered a commer- 
cial graduate who is not also a high school graduate. The school 
considers this a selective occupation which only mature and well 
educated boys and girls should enter. There are many grada- 
tions in stenographic work from tabulating or typing envelopes to 
the intricate technique of stenography in banks and railroads. 



390 Occupational Information [Part II 

Success in the former type of position does not demand high 
school training, but for promotion to more responsible work and 
for a high degree of success in such work, a high school education 
is essential. Both the volume on ''Women in Office Service" 
and "Commercial Work and Training for Girls," prove by 
statistics and quoted wages the wage value of a high school educa- 
tion. Of the nine stenographers found in the type studies, five 
were high school graduates. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Although 
stories are occasionally heard of people who picked up a knowledge 
of stenography and typewriting on the job, there is no occupa- 
tion which more rigidly demands special training as a requisite 
to employment. The special training is obtained by study in 
some school. Aside from possible correspondence courses, there 
are in Richmond, only two business training schools : The Public 
High School Commercial Classes, and the Richmond Business 
College. The former has graduated an average of thirty pupils 
a year during the last three 3^ears. The latter claims that nearly 
one hundred pupils attend the school each year. There is no pos- 
sibihty of estimating how many stenographers trained in other 
cities are at work here in Richmond. Commercial courses in the 
high school are discussed in another chapter. 

Mental and physical requirements. — That the qualifications, 
mental and physical, for success in stenography may be determined 
with some degree of exactness, is evinced by the interesting frag- 
mentary experiments undertaken by such psychologists as Professor 
Pough of New York University and the late Professor Munsterburg 
of Harvard. The results of their efforts suggest that power of 
association and co-ordination are necessary for typing as well 
as the ability to form mental and manual habits easily. Such 
experiments indicate what science may do in the future by way of 
testing personal capacities for vocations. Definite physical 
characteristics necessary for the typist are flexible wrists and 
fingers, and a good strong constitution. 

Promotion. — The most significant aspect of promotion is the 
differentiation between opportunities for boys and girls. In 
Richmond no comparative figures are available, but from the 
table, heading this chapter, it may be seen that 157 men as com- 
pared to eleven women are employed in positions of shipping, 
cost, bill and ledger clerks, which are positions of responsibility 



Chap. XX] Office Service 391 

and well paid. How many of these men began as stenographers 
is not known, but in Chapter XVII, ''Mercantile Traffic," it is 
indicated that male stenographers become rate clerks, shipping 
clerks and traffic men. All the six male stenographers, whose 
work was studied in detail, have opportunity to advance to more 
responsible positions, such as cost clerk, traffic man and rate 
clerk. For the one woman, whose position was studied, no 
promotion was possible save increase in salary. It may be safely 
said that women usually continue to be stenographers and pro- 
motion consists of increased wages usually obtained by changing 
positions. For young men, the stenographic position may be a 
stepping stone, leading to continuous advancement, the exact 
character of which depends upon the type of establishment. 

Source and selection of workers. — Stenographers are secured 
by advertising, calling upon one of the training centers, and 
by giving permanent employment to the extra worker who might 
have been employed during the rush season. The stenographer 
is interviewed, sometimes a letter is dictated as a test, and if the 
interview and test are satisfactory, the worker is engaged on pro- 
bation. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — The regular stenographic posi- 
tion is not seasonable. Overtime is sometimes expected of office 
workers during busy seasons. Most retail stores require the 
presence of their stenographers Saturday night, although their 
duties at that time may be more general than specific. Few 
factories or offices close regularly Saturday afternoon. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — There are no hazards. 
The work is sedentary and confining and at times involves nervous 
strain, the degree of which has not as yet been measured. 

Wages. — The two men in this group of six stenographers re- 
ceived the initial wage of ten and twelve dollars a week, respective- 
ly. The other four stenographers receive nine and ten dollars, 
not as an initial wage but after a period of several years. The 
beginning wage for boys and girls is from six to seven and one- 
half dollars. 

The Bookkeeper 

According to the census returns of the Survej^, there were on 
March 1, 1916, forty-seven male and thirty-seven female bookkeep- 
ers in Richmond, in addition to seven males and Thirteen females 



392 Occupational Information [Part II 

who were cashiers and bookkeepers. This study is based upon a 
careful analysis of ten bookkeepers, seven of whom were employed 
in six store offices and three in three factories. These ten book- 
keepers, unlike the stenographers, have no general office duties 
aside from answering the telephone. 

What the worker does. — The bookkeeper keeps a systematic 
record of business transactions in order to show their relation to 
each other, and the state of the business in which they occur. 
In its simple aspects, bookkeeping involves the use of the day 
book, the cash book and ledger. In its more highly developed 
aspects, it involves the use of specialized types of all sorts of record 
books and forms. Naturally, the work varies with the size and 
system of the company. Even within the limited scope of this 
study it was found to range from a simple journal of entries to a 
highly organized system of accounts for every department of a 
complicated business. The simpler methods are largely used by 
the proprietors themselves in the retail stores, where no office 
worker is employed. The more complex systems are used in 
large factories and in large stores. 

A typical schedule of the bookkeeper's work in a retail store, 
involves keeping the store ledger, journal, day book for charge 
sales, general cash book, ledger and ledger auxiliaries, and synco- 
pated journal. The syncopated journal groups numerical facts 
which would otherwise have to be recorded in several different 
journals and involves nine groups: Merchandise, cash, expense, 
interest and discount, freight and express, stock accounts, and 
bills payable and receivable. In addition, the bookkeeper makes 
out statements to customers each month, and directs the collec- 
tion of unpaid bills; makes monthly summaries of receipts by 
departments, pays firm bills (manager signs all checks), takes 
charge of letters and fifing, considers questions of credit, if the 
manager and assistant are absent; receives payments of bills at 
cash window and makes change; receives and adjusts complaints 
about charges, banks cash and checks, and keeps the bank books. 

A schedule of bookkeeping work in a factory includes keeping 
ledger, synoptic ledger and cash book; entering all shipments; 
and summarizing statements from pay roll. The w^ork requires 
the adding machine in obtaining totals. The detailed work of 
factory accounting is described in the discussion of the cost clerk. 

Special knowledge required. — Aside from a thorough working 
knowledge of all types of bookkeeping, the bookkeeper must know 



Chap. XX] Office Service 393 

the commodities of the company which are sold or manufactured, 
as well as the business details of office procedure in municipal 
and institutional office. A knowledge of transportation and how 
to obtain accurate information about mercantile rates should be 
a part of the equipment of every bookkeeper who pays bills on 
freight and express. How to bank, how to compute interest and 
discount, and all the multitudinous details of office technique 
must be known by the bookkeeper. 

Special skill required. — Success in bookkeeping and account- 
ing depends upon mental rather than manual skill, but the mental 
equipment is worthless without skill in penmanship and in opera- 
ting an adding machine. 

General education required. — What has been written concern- 
ing the general education needed by the stenographer, applies 
to the bookkeeper with the reservation that the stenographer, in 
order to advance to highly paid positions, must have an accurate 
knowledge of English and general information. The bookkeeper 
is more of a specialist, having less general contact with the public 
than the stenographer, and if highly expert in accounting, can 
fill a position whether a high school graduate or not. On the other 
hand, difficult problems in bookkeeping require a trained mind 
which higher education develops. Such advanced positions 
as ti-easurer, purchasing agent, or secretary could not be filled 
by an average person without more than eighth grade education. 

Hoiv special knoivledge and skill are ohtaijied. — Penmanship 
and knowledge of bookkeeping are both prerequisites of employ- 
ment in this position, although a worker engaged as cashier or 
stenographer m^y if unusually apt, become a bookkeeper's 
assistant. The same schools which teach stenography and which 
have been discussed under that head, also teach bookkeeping. 
Knowledge of the general principles of the subject, with applica- 
tion to various specific problems, occupies about six months in the 
private business school and a school year at the high school. 
Higher accounting is also taught in both schools. The work of 
the bookkeeper, for entrance, proficiency and promotion, requires 
a special vocational education. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Practically no attempt 
has been made to discover the qualifications for success in this 
work. Abihty to analyze a problem and invent solutions for 
new problems are certainly essential for success. The steadiness 



394 Occupational Information [Part II 

and reliability of character needed by this worker, who handles 
large sums of money often with very little supervision, cannot 
be overestimated. They are distinguishing features of this posi- 
tion. 

Promotion. — The position of bookkeeper is sometimes filled 
by promoting the assistant bookkeeper or cashier. ''Once a 
bookkeeper, always a bookkeeper," is a slogan whose truth is 
attested by the fact that all the ten bookkeepers found in these 
type studies have held their positions for many years and do not 
expect to change them. The position of treasurer or secretary 
of the company is sometimes filled by promoting the bookkeeper 
and there is more possibility of such advancement for men than 
women. 

Source and selection of workers. — The responsible post of book- 
keeper is seldom filled in any establishment by taking a new worker 
from a school. The subordinate positions of ledger clerk or assis- 
tant bookkeepers may be filled by inexperienced graduates of 
business courses but advanced positions or general bookkeepers 
require experience as well as special training. 

Reasonableness and overtime. — There is no seasonableness in 
this position, for even if a factory closed down for a period, the 
office may be very busy taking invoice or balancing the ^^ear's 
books. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — This work is con- 
fining and sedentary. The responsibility it entails sometimes 
becomes a serious mental strain. 

The Cashier 

According to the Survey census returns, there were twenty- 
seven male and fifteen female cashiers in Richmond in March, 
1916. Type studies were made of seven cashiers, two of whom 
had bookkeeping duties also. 

Type of work. — The term ''cashier" applies to two entirely 
different kinds of work : Taking in money direct on sales, making 
change and keeping a simple record of the transactions; and the 
issuing of money for the pay-roll, and paying company bills. 
The cashier in the retail store often has some general duties to 
perform, such as helping the bookkeeper in the dry goods store and 
making sales in the grocery store. The cashier of the large es- 



Chap. XX] Office Service 395 

tablishment may be responsible for seeing that the books are 
correctly kept. 

What the worker does. — As the work of each of the seven cashiers 
is distinctive in some respect, the detailed schedule of the day's 
work of each will be reported. 

1. The worker collects the money from the cash register, totals 
it and checks it against the amount of sales which are cashed 
up on the register during the day. She does the banking, makes 
out invoices and keeps a record of incoming merchandise. 

2. The cashier checks sales slips, foots extensions and totals, 
and makes change, which is sent back by the carrier to the sales 
girl. Every morning she receives money from the bookkeeper, 
for which she accounts. Every evening she totals the cash and 
checks it with cash sales slips and the original sum received. She 
also keeps cash book. 

3. The cashier sits at a desk on the first floor and makes 
change for the salesmen, ringing up the cash in the register ac- 
cording to the number of each salesman. By this means she keeps 
a record of individual sales. She receives the charge sales slips 
from the clerks on the floor, which she enters to the customer's 
account, adding the total of the sale on the face of the envelope, 
within which is placed the sales slip. At the end of each week or 
month, according to the custom of the customer's payments, 
on charge accounts she obtains totals by the adding machine 
and encloses the printed slip from the adding machine, with the 
bill and the sale slip. She typewrites invoices for individual 
customer's bills; fills out the regular form for cash sales at the end 
of the day, which in turn, are collected for statement at the end 
of the week; answers telephones and if not engaged, and all sales- 
persons are busy, she waits on customers. She also does the 
banking. 

4. The cashier is the head of the tube system, making change 
for all sales. This tube system is also used for shooting messages 
to any part of the building or the warehouse. All the messages 
go to the cashier, who re-routes them when necessary. She 
keeps the index file of individual customers and records bill pay- 
ments; and keeps the cash book and records amounts of sales by 
departments. For ''fill in work" at odd moments, she does 
typing. 

5 and 6. They inspect sales slips and make change in the cash 
balcony; record charge sales, entering them in cash book accord- 



396 Occupational Information [Part II 

ing to departments; file sales slips by the clerk's number, total 
each clerk's cash and charge sales, and enter them in record books 
by clerks and departments. The assistant cashier does odd jobs 
in the office and assists in writing letters. 

7. The head bookkeeper or cashier has full charge of general 
ledgers and all cash. He banks, pays bills of the house, and makes 
out all checks. He also makes out order cards for machines- 
and sends ''manifest" to the repairman. 

General education required. — Some high school training is re- 
quired for cashiers. Of these studied the majority of workers 
had more than eighth grade education. Knowledge of arith- 
metic and banking is needed, and in the higher positions which 
bring the worker in contact with the public, advanced general 
education is essential. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Employers 
interviewed for this study stated that most cashiers of the less 
expert type can get what special knowledge they need on the job, 
provided they have a thorough knowledge of commercial arith- 
metic and bookkeeping. The necessary training in these two 
fields must be obtained in school. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Accuracy and rapidity 
in counting and computing change is necessary for success as a 
cashier. The qualifications of the expert cashier are practically 
the same as for the bookkeeper. 

Promotion. — The cashier may become bookkeeper, since 
part of the required duties are to prepare statements for the book- 
keeper. 

Source and selection of workers. — Workers are taken from the 
outside or from the sales force. In the latter case they are chosen 
because of their alertness and knowledge-of the business. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — The cashier in the retail store 
has the same hours as the salesperson. In order to get the day's 
balance, some overtime is occasionally required. Their work is 
not seasonable. 

Hazards and inherent character of work. — The work is con- 
fining and responsible in character, involving all the mental and 
physical strains of a confining, sedentary life. 

Wages. — Of three schedules received for retail cashiers, two 
quoted wages at six and one thirty dollars per week. 



Chap. XX] Office Service 397 

The Clerk 

The term ''clerk" has been used to designate a group of 
workers which could not be classified elsewhere. The range, 
includes clerical workers, bill clerks, stock, shipping, and receiving 
clerks, file clerks, timekeepers, and cost and statistical clerks. 
Clerical work, except in the railroad office, usually is the most 
subordinate form of office work. Statistical and cost clerks, at 
the other end of the scale, are the most expert positions requiring 
specialists who are well remunerated. 

Nu7nber employed. — In Richmond there were 217 males and 
36 females designated as clerks working in various offices. It will 
be noted in the opening of this chapter, that the majority of 
clerks were employed in railroad and express offices, and the offices 
of shops and factories. 

Definitions of various types of clerks. — The clerical worker 
keeps records, opens and distributes mail, writes tags and slips, 
and does checking and posting. In the railroad office, however, 
the term is more loosely used and includes such experts as the 
rate clerk and the chief clerk, whose work is not only highly 
specialized, but executive. 

The bill clerk prepares invoices, usually on a typewriter or 
billing machine. There are very few bill clerks in Richmond, 
except in railroad offices. This work sometimes involves re- 
checking figures. 

Stock clerks keep records of all materials in the stock room and 
records of all materials issued. Stock is usually issued in accord- 
ance with signed requisitions which are checked against the 
department. 

The shipping clerk works in the office and warehouse, check- 
ing and supervising outgoing material. The receiving clerk is in 
charge of incoming material, checking it against the invoice for 
quality, quantity and condition. Both these positions are dis- 
cussed in Chapter XVII, ''Mercantile Traffic." 

The file clerk is employed to correctly file away all corres- 
pondence, orders, contracts and papers of the firm. The order is 
generally alphabetical, with folders for correspondence and cards 
for reference tabulation. It is the file clerk's duty to keep the 
orders correctly filed and find such material as is needed for ref- 
erence by the other clerks. 

The timekeeper summarizes the time for all departments, 



398 Occupational Information [Part II 

computing the wage for each worker. In one factory the cost 
clerk is also timekeeper. Frequently the foreman of the depart- 
ment keeps the time of the employees under him. If the work is 
on a piece basis, the time put in by the men is important only as 
a record of efficiency. One employer stated that the wage re- 
ceived by this clerk was about seventy-five dollars a month. 

Statistical and cost clerks are experts engaged in analyzing 
the production costs of all departments in order to determine 
the parts of the business which are most and least profitable, the 
proportionate cost of labor, raw materials and overhead expense. 
It is on the basis of these computations that prices are fixed, that 
charges on output are made, that wages are cut or raised, and 
that sales are directed. 

The Cost Clerk 

The work of two cost clerks is presented here in detail to show 
the high degree of expertness required by employees of large 
establishments and the opportunities which the field offers for 
men capable of advancement. This work is analogous in inter- 
est, importance and specialization to that of the shipping clerk 
and traffic man. There is a close connection between cost work 
and bookkeeping, but as the former is less generally known to the 
public, it is analyzed in more detail in this report. 

What the worker does: Foundry cost clerk. — The cost clerk 
enters on a foundry production sheet the time and piece work done 
by men the day before. Foundry men each have a book for re- 
cording their own production. They fill out two stubs in dupli- 
cate, keeping one and turning over the other to the foundry cost 
accountant. Laborers fill out a yellow ticket to report the num- 
ber of hours worked, and hand it to the cost accountant in the 
same fashion. These tickets for moulders show mould, casting 
and pattern number; whether good or bad; date; pay roll number, 
and name. The factory production sheet shows for each worker 
the castings made, the pattern numbers, the number good and 
bad, the factory loss, and cost price per hundred per pattern. 

The production sheet is made out in duplicate, one copy being 
sent to the cleaning room foreman. The foreman is responsible 
for rating the quality of the castings after they are '^rattled." 
He sorts them according to pattern number and marks on the 
production sheet which are good and which are bad. He calcu- 
lates the factory loss from core blows or castings broken in rattler. 



Chap. XX] Office Service 399 

He also marks on the production sheet the weights of castings 
per 100. When the duplicate is returned by the foreman to the 
foundry cost accountant, the latter has information for other 
calculations. The time sheet is hung in the factory for the in- 
spection of the men. 

The moulders time book is made out from the production 
sheet. This book coti tains a weekly summary of facts. Company 
loss is figured per individual. The foundry report is figured from 
the weekly pay roll sheets. It presents a summary of all facts. 
It shows exactly what each contract costs in materials and labor, 
and exactly what each operation for the factory departments 
costs in labor and materials. The number employed, amounts 
paid, and cost per ton, appear on this report. One of these weekly 
reports goes to the bookkeeper and is finally filed with him, 
after he has filled in the figures which show the amount received 
for each contract. The duplicate is filed in the office of the 
foundry cost accountant. 

The pay roll sheet is made from the time book. It is a long 
sheet wdth a detailed report, showing labor charged to all contract 
customers, to all miscellaneous customers, and to the various 
departments of the company itself. It also shows cost of ma- 
terials to various departments. The price per hundred is entered 
and the total wages of the men figured and entered. Pay en- 
velopes are then written from the pay roll, checked against it, 
and sent to the office for filing. 

The cost clerk makes out the record card of all orders. He 
writes work memorandum for the foreman on the factory fore- 
man's pad. When the work is reported at the end of the day, the 
cost accountant writes the number of perfect castings produced 
on the record card according to pattern. When the production 
is equal to the order, a balance is struck. 

What the worker does: General accountant. — The general ac- 
countant has charge of all books and accounts. He uses three 
synoptic ledgers. 

He makes out the ''manifest" of contract orders for the factory, 
also the time sheet records, and pay roll. He is the cost estimator, 
deriving production, overhead and raw costs from estimates of 
cost of material and wage scales. 

Special skill required. — Because the content of this occupa- 
tion is entirely mental, there is no requisite skill except penman- 
ship. 



400 Occupational Information [Part II 

Special knowledge required. — The cost clerk must be a trained 
bookkeeper in order to understand the underlying principles 
of accounting, business procedure, banking, interest and dis- 
count, indexing and business papers. He should also under- 
stand the basic problems of traffic, transportation, insurance 
and taxes. The cost clerk must be thoroughly familiar with the 
process in his own factory; the product; the prices of product; 
system used in the recording of output and labor; the inter-rela- 
tionship between departments; and methods of receiving and pay- 
ing claims. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — A thorough 
course in bookkeeping is a requisite for the cost clerk. Both the 
workers who were interviewed for this study had had such train- 
ing. Neither of them had pursued a special course in cost account- 
ing. The systems the^^ used were of their own devising. Both 
acquired the necessary information about the factory by work- 
ing there in other capacities before becoming cost clerks. 

Mental and physical requirements. — One of the prime essentials 
for such work is power of analysis without which the cost clerk 
would be unable to solve his problem. He must really be creative 
in order to originate or modify systems of recording and com- 
puting financial facts peculiar to his position. 

Promotion. — One of these men began as a factory worker 
and by gradual advances was chosen for the position of cost clerk, 
the other began as stock keeper, advanced to clerical office work 
and assistant bookkeeper, after which he became cost clerk. 

Seasonahleness and overtime. — This occupation is not season- 
able. It requires some overtime when the accounts must be 
balanced, but it is not regular, and, since this work is of a profes- 
sional character, necessary overtime is .expected without pay. 

Training for Office Service 

General view. — Information about the wide scope of office 
work, its variety, the advanced opportunities to which it leads, 
the variation of requirements and comparative advantages of 
employment in one type of office over another, ought to be secured 
by every youth who contemplates entering any of the commercial 
occupations. This information is available and should be part of 
the equipment of every prospective office worker. 



Chap. XX] Office Service 401 

Few "specialists^' positions. — Richmond, because of its niiiiier- 
ous small speciality stores and factories, has no very large group 
of office workers whose daily tasks are highly specialized. It 
has, for example, no group of typists and adding machine opera- 
tors; few combinations of various occupations in office work; 
few women in executive positions; and only a few types of offices 
which employ any office workers. 

Field not overcrowded. — There are evidences that the field 
of office service is not overcrowded in Richmond. Both private 
and public schools state that they have rather more difficulty in 
filling calls from employers than in finding places for graduates. 
As there are no employment centres for commercial workers, 
it is impossible to know how many office workers in Richmond 
are unemployed. 

Principles underlying training for boys and girls. — Boys and 
girls in the Richmond commercial classes are at present receiving 
identical training, although their future work is to be very different 
in character. Boys in the employ of the railroad may start as 
stenographers, but they are promoted to the special and execu- 
tive positions of rate clerk and assistant to the chief clerk; in the 
real ^estate or insurance office they may start as collector, or 
clerical workers, but they are advanced to the position of agent 
or office head; in factories they may begin as stenographers or 
bill clerks, but they may be promoted to assistant department 
heads, or to special work in various factory departments. Girls, 
on the other hand, are not so advanced. An employer expects 
a girl employed as a stenographer, to remain one, or if he employs 
her as a cashier, she is expected to remain a cashier. A girl and 
boy may both enter a bank as stenographers, but the boy is 
promoted to ledger work or to assisting the cashier, while the girl 
remains a stenographer. There are, of course, exceptions and 
more women are now found in special and administrative positions 
than formerly. The Cleveland Survey Report on ''Boys and 
Girls in Commercial Work, " has already been quoted, showing the 
differentiation in work for boys and girls. 

Stenography and bookkeeping for boys and girls. — Technical 
training in stenography and typing, in filing, in operating office 
machines and general office procedure, ought to be given girls be- 
cause they are going to be employed to do these specific things and 
because the majority of them will continue to perform the duties 
in stenography and typewriting work to make them efiicient in 

26—5463 



402 Occupational Information [Part II 

their initial work. Training in bookkeeping has two distinct 
aspects: The basic principles of accounting and rudimentary 
technique of keeping books, which is generally valuable to every 
young man and woman entering a business profession; and the 
science of expert accounting, which is a highly specialized voca- 
tion and useful only to the boy or girl who expects to become an 
accountant. The question which every business school has to 
decide is where to differentiate between the two and how much 
time is required in the study of each. Certainly girls intending 
to become stenographers ought not to be required to take as many 
hours of bookkeeping as boys. Certainly boys and girls not 
wishing to become bookkeepers, should not be expected to spend 
half as much time on this study as those who wish to specialize 
in bookkeeping, looking toward accountancy. Practical ledger 
work is necessary for the application of principles in bookkeeping, 
but it is a question of how much detail is valuable to the young 
person before he or she has had the advantage of experience. 

General courses in mercantile traffic. — In Chapter XVII, the 
course in ^'Mercantile Traffic," which is thought to be valuable 
for every boy and girl who enters commercial life, is outlined in 
detail. This course should be required of boys and elective for 
girls. 

Vocational information. — There should be included in the com- 
mercial department, a presentation of the scope and possibilities 
of office work. To the office worker is applicable also what was 
suggested in Chapter XVIII, ''Mercantile Sales," on salesmanship, 
concerning the teaching of practical economics, knowledge of the 
world's markets, basic reasons for difference in market prices, 
the basis of factory prices and advertising methods. 

Practical experience. — The value of practical experience to 
commercial students is so generally accepted as to be no longer 
worth debating. The Richmond High School is to be congratu- 
lated on its work in this direction. To be of greatest value, a 
plan should be formulated for obtaining a full report of the pro- 
ficiencies and deficiencies of work done on a part-time basis. A 
complete and clear report card which the supervisor of the student's 
work might fill out and return to the school, would be of inestim- 
able benefit in pointing out to the commercial teacher just what 
are the pupil's deficiencies and where greater emphasis should 
be laid on the course of study. 



Chap. XX] Office Service 403 

Follow-u'p provisions. — Especially during this experimental 
stage it would seem wise to recommend that the high school 
commercial teachers organize a scheme to definitely follow-up their 
graduates. Definite occupational histories of graduates which 
could be added to their educational records, would form a most 
reliable body of vocational information which would be of great 
value to oncoming workers. By determining into what occupa- 
tions young people are going, how they are rewarded and pro- 
moted, the. public school which aims to train for wage earning, 
may both test its own efforts and provide its own means of adjust- 
ment to meet the needs of the local situation. 

Contact with the job. — No vocational course can afford to be 
without constant contact with the job. Some means of co-opera- 
tion must be worked out to bind the effort of the school close 
to the actual work for which its product is to be used. An advisory 
committee of business men should be formed to meet with the 
business teachers often enough to keep them in touch with changes 
in business practice and new problems and opportunities. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The Survey Committee, in light of the findings regarding 
Office Service, Mercantile Traffic and Sales, recommends to the 
Richmond Board of Education that the commercial department 
of the Senior High School be organized so that preparation for 
commercial work for boys and girls be differentiated in keeping 
with the varied requirements of the commercial world for men 
and women. 

Some of the obviously needed units in the commercial courses 
for girls are: Stenography, typewriting, spelling, office procedure 
and practice, and the rudiments of bookkeeping. The present 
course requiring three semesters of bookkeeping for girls is thought 
to be too long; one semester is sufficient. In the course in type- 
writing, provision should be made for pupils to learn how to make 
minor repairs and adjustments to the typewriter and to change 
ribbons. The unit here called ^'Office Procedure and Practice," 
should include the use of the telephone, adding machines, card 
catalogs, filing systems and the folding of letters. For the girls, 
most of the time should be given to developing techniques; but am- 
bitious girls of capacity should be permitted to take the other 
courses outlined for the boys. 



404 Occupational Information [Part II 

For the boys the following commercial courses should be pro- 
vided: Enough stenography and typewriting to master the 
technique; bookkeeping, mercantile traffic and transportation, 
mercantile sales, industrial history, rudimentary economics and 
vocational information regarding commercial fields, together with 
such other subjects as are needed for wage earning and entrance 
to a college of commerce. 

Some elastic provision for commercial training should be made 
for young people who cannot complete the whole course and who 
drop out to enter commercial work. 

The present practice of part-time employment during the 
senior year is commended, and the suggestion is made that teachers 
follow up this work, knowing the exact work done, and the pro- 
ficiencies and deficiencies of part-time workers in office technique 
and practice, stenography, typewriting and spelling. 

All commercial work in the Senior High School should be on 
a strict vocational basis. A ready means of contact should be 
established between the school and business. This can be best 
done by an advisory committee composed of store proprietors, 
office workers and teachers. The function of such a committee 
would be to help organize courses, follow up work of students 
and be generally helpful to the commercial department. 

The evening school is commended for offering courses in 
advanced bookkeeping and accounting, stenography, typewriting 
and office practice. This work should be continued and en- 
larged to meet growing demands. 



CHAPTER XXI 



HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT: THE HOUSEWIFE 

Scope of study. — There are over 6,500 housewives in Rich- 
mond, constituting more than 27 per cent, of the total popula- 
tion, and 5,000 more than those employed in any other single 
occupational group. To discover the actual work done by the 
housewife and the knowledge and skill required for it, repre- 
sentatives of the Survey held conference of from one to two hours 
in length with sixty-seven housewives of Richmond. The homes 
were chosen so as to afford a typical composite picture of the 
whole community. The spot map of the homes visited shows 
they were located in every section of the city and that no section 
of any considerable size was omitted. Several foreign homes 
were visited. Classified according to occupation of wage earners, 
schedules were obtained from fifteen homes of the W type, pro- 
fessional men; seventeen homes of the X type, merchants, and 
store and factory managers; nineteen homes of the Y type, 
tradesmen and salesmen; and sixteen homes of the Z type, un- 
skilled laborers. Forty-five of the families visited had children 
under eighteen years of age. The size of the families varied from 
one to fourteen members. Houses varied in size from two rooms, 
occupied by six people, to ten rooms, occupied by two people. 

Constant Factors in the Work of All Housewives 
General Knowledge Required 

Reading and writing are essential to the housewife, and in 
order to keep accounts, read recipes, advertisements and house- 
hold magazines, she needs at least an elementary school educa- 
tion. Ten housekeepers visited had taken college work and more 
than half had taken some high school work. 

Seasonableness of Work 

Most of the household work is continuous throughout the 
year. There are, however, certain seasons and occurrences when 
extra work is demanded. Housecleaning begins in the spring 
as soon as the days are pleasant enough to permit taking things 
out doors. Most housewives combine with the regular cleaning 

(405) 



406 Occupational Information [Part II 

the painting, papering, varnishing or remodeUng which is to be 
done. The fall cleaning involves about the same kind of work 
as the spring, but, as a rule is not so extensive. Spring and fall 
are also the popular moving seasons, which always means much 
extra disagreeable work for the housewife but which may sim- 
plify housecleaning. Canning begins in the spring as soon as 
fresh fruit is ripe and extends well into the fall. No extra work is 
attempted in the winter but the care of the furnace and the in- 
crease of smoke and mud add to the rtegular work. The amount 
of sewing varies as it does in the dressmaking trade, but mending 
is always required. 

In addition to the regular seasonal work there are some extra 
demands which are likely to occur at any time. Sickness of any 
member of the family necessitates more work as well as added 
mental strain. Guests in the house make extra work. Absence 
of members of the family may make the work lighter while they 
are away and may add extra w^ork necessary in getting them ready 
to go. 

What the Housewife Does 

Selecting the house. — A few Richmond housewives have in- 
herited the old family homes; a few have married men who have 
homes in readiness, but the initial problem confronting the great 
majority is that of selecting a building site or a home for rental 
or purchase. The choice is conditioned by the amount of money 
which may be so spent, the size of house necessary to accomodate 
the family, and the makeup of the family both in regard to the 
occupations of the wage-earners and the school requirements of 
the children. The general location is selected on the basis of 
health and cleanliness, congestion, available sewer connections 
and social and moral atmosphere, or, possibly, nearness to hus- 
band's business or work. Most people prefer to live near their 
friends or people with kindred interests. 

The housewife obtains addresses of the houses available in the 
general location desired from friends, real estate agents and news- 
paper advertisements. She looks at each house and criticizes it 
on the basis of arrangement of floor space, lighting, construction, 
sanitation, repair and nearness to school, church and work. If 
the house is being built she may help in planning it, or if the house 
is an old one she may help to plan repairs and alterations. The 
selection of the furnace involves investigation of the relative 
merits of different heating systems through friends and sales- 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 407 

men, and the general disorder and dirt incident to its installa- 
tion. 

Furnishing the house. — Furnishing the house involves the 
selection and arrangement of the necessary beds, chairs, tables, 
etc. Most housewives try to make the house cheery and restful 
by selecting furnishings and draperies which are beautiful as well 
as useful. They may buy all furnishings at once, or what is more 
likely, a few pieces at a time and try to make them fit into the 
general plan in mind for the completed home. The housewife 
may decide on some color scheme either for the first and second 
floor, or for the whole house at once or for each room separately. 
Housewives in rented houses who move frequently find that their 
furniture does not always look well in the new place. The wall 
paper may not be of her own choosing, and thus incompatible 
with the effect she has attempted. Twenty-seven of the house- 
wives interviewed were renting their homes, four were buying on 
payments and thirty-six were owners. The change in styles of 
furniture often make it hard to buy new pieces which will look 
well with the old. Some years ago it was practically impossible, 
with limited means, to purchase plain wall paper or furniture 
designed on simple lines and free from meaningless ornament. 
One housewife recently sent all over the United States to get a 
wallpaper which would carry out her scheme of furnishing. 

One housewife had a few good rugs in the beginning. She 
has built up her whole scheme of house furnishing to harmonize 
with the texture and color scheme of these rugs. Another has 
selected all her furniture to harmonize with a few old chairs and 
tables which she inherited. Some housewives make a special 
effort in one or another special phase of house furnishing; china 
and silverware, curtains, rugs or chairs. The conditions imposed 
by the amount of the income are considerable but more funda- 
mental are the problems of making some consistent plan of the 
whole, of selecting and adhering to an agreeable color scheme, of 
adapting the new to the old, and selecting for utility and durabil- 
ity as well as for beauty. Bad examples are easier to find than 
good ones, for many of the housewives visited had no plan at all. 

Keeping the house sanitary. — If the house has been well chosen 
the problem of sanitation is more than half solved. In fact, 
aside from the choice of location, there is little that the house- 
wife does but call a plumber when a pipe leaks or when the drains 
are clogged. If the plumbing is not modern, she has the added 



408 Occupational Information [Part II 

burden of pumping water from a well or cistern and disposing of 
it by throwing it out in the yard or cesspool. Most housewives 
dispose of garbage by placing it in covered cans in the alley for the 
collector. Those who keep poultry, nine of whom were inter- 
viewed, use the garbage for poultry feed. Some burn it in stoves, 
furnaces or garbage incinerators, while some employ the primitive 
method of distributing it around the yard. 

The housewife must be constantly on the lookout for household 
pests. Rats and mice may be caught in traps and disposed of 
easily. To guard against moths she must air out closets fre- 
quently and pack away clothing with various preventatives such 
as moth balls, tobacco leaves, gasoline or black pepper. Cock- 
roaches and water bugs are not uncommon and there are few 
housewives who have not at one time or another had the task of 
exterminating bedbugs. 

It is safe to say that the problem of ventilation has not been 
attacked scientifically. Most housewives air out the house during 
the daytime by opening doors and windows. Windows are 
so loosely fitted in some houses that the housewife considers 
other ventilation superfluous. As a rule, windows are opened at 
night. Some furnaces provide for intake of fresh air and moisture. 
Three of the housewives said that the only provision for moisture 
in the air was the teakettle on the kitchen stove. 

Many housewives attend to the furnace, make and feed fires 
and take out ashes. Twenty-six of the households visited were 
heated by stoves. When stove heat is used, fires usually need 
more frequent attention and make more work in cleaning up dust 
and dirt. Since gas has become available, most Richmond house- 
wives use it for cooking. 

Kerosene lamps were used for lighting by seven of the house- 
wives visited. This adds the task of cleaning and filling them. 
The greater majority use electricity. Very few are able to read 
the meters for gas, water or electric light service. 

Keeping the house clean — A great deal of the work of the house- 
wife consists in the routine work of keeping things clean; dish 
washing, sweeping, dusting, mopping, scrubbing and putting 
things to rights. The woman who employs a maid turns over 
this work to her. Some employ women by the day to do most of 
it. The amount to be done depends upon individual standards 
of cleanliness, size and makeup of family, number of rooms, 
amount of dust and mud from the street, and smoke from fac- 
tories and railroads. 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 409 

Less than half of the housewives visited did their own laundry 
work. On the other hand five did washing and cleaning for other 
people. The process differs in detail according to individual 
theories. Some put their clothes to soak the night before; some 
put them in the tub and rub them immediately; and some use a 
washing machine for both washing and rinsing. Clothes must be 
hung up to dry either in the yard, basement or attic. The iron- 
ing takes fully as much time as the washing and requires more 
skill and patience. The housewife has, besides the straight laun- 
dry work, the task of removing spots and stains. 

Most housewives use labor saving devices of one kind or another. 
Thirty mentioned electric irons, twenty-seven washing machines, 
and fifteen vacuum cleaners. Sewing machines and carpet 
sweepers were found in practically all of the homes. Other devices 
include fireless cookers, bread mixers, motor sewing machines, 
dustless dusters and oil mops. 

Although house cleaning is done more systematically and 
slowly than it used to be, very few housewives have done away 
with it entirely. This work does not vary a great deal from 
regular cleaning. Clothing is sorted, aired and packed away. 
The woodwork is cleaned, windows are washed and rugs are 
thoroughly beaten. All the usual cleaning work is done with 
greater thoroughness and inclusiveness and extra tasks such as 
cleaning closets are done one at a time. Housewives frequentl^^ 
take this season for papering, decorating, varnishing, renovating 
and remodeling. This work may be extended over several weeks. 

Selecting and preparing food. — Only three or four of the house- 
wives visited plan meals scientifically with reference to food 
value and proper balance of diet, and the special needs of her 
family. The great majority plan the meals for a day ahead, but 
without reference to any scientific standard. A few approximate 
a balance diet by following general principles of serving as much 
fruit and green vegetables as possible and limiting the meat in the 
diet. A few follow a special diet for certain members of the fam- 
ily. Some housewives do not try to plan until just before meal 
time and then ''buy what is the cheapest," or let the children 
select what they want. 

Practically all the housewives visited buy some prepared 
food, breakfast foods, bread and canned fruit. Fifteen of them 
buy everything possible in large quantities. Thirty-five house- 
wives buy almost everything at one store, and twenty-four of 



410 Occupational Information [Part II 

these use the local store and eleven buy in different places. Two 
or three order some staples from large mail order firms. Several 
purchase in quantity butter and eggs, potatoes and other hardy 
vegetables from the farm. Nine of the housewives visited keep 
poultry; thirty-five have gardens. The work involved in keeping 
the garden is discussed in Chapter XXV, ''Home and School 
Gardening." 

Sixteen of the housewives visited select almost everything 
personally; twenty do practically all ordering by phone; six give 
their orders to the grocery boy who comes every morning to 
solicit from them, and four or five order staples by phone and 
select everything else personally. In fifteen instances the hus- 
band or children do most of the buying. Most of the housewives 
who do not select personally know the grocer with whom they 
deal and are careful to send back anything not strictly according 
to order. 

Preparing the food cannot be described in detail because the 
process varies for each diet served. Most housewives in Rich- 
mond do not serve in formal courses but a few always serve in 
courses. The poorer group serve only two or three dishes on the 
oilcloth covered table in the kitchen. 

Canning is extra and comes definitely outside of the regular 
daily routine. It involves many processes, such as preparing 
the fruit, which is always more or less tedious; boiling it and put- 
ting it in cans, which have been specially heated and prepared, 
and sealing the cans. Details vary according to the kind of 
fruit or vegetable. Jellies, pickles, marmalades and preserves 
are made by processes which vary according to the product and 
kind of fruit or vegetable used. 

Clothing the family. — It was found that the amount of sewing 
varies more among Richmond housewives than any other part 
of household work because it depends so largely on income, on 
special talent and training, on individual thrift, standards of 
living and pressure of other duties. The problem involves the 
decision as to what each member of the family will need for the 
season, what can be worn again and what can be remodeled. 
The housewife plans on the basis of style, color and needed 
warmth. Some articles including men's clothing, tailored suits, 
knit underwear, shoes and hosiery are bought ready made for 
almost every member of the family. Nearly half of the house- 
wives visited make all other garments. A very few of the other 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 411 

half do not sew at all; the remainder do their own plain sewing 
and buy the rest ready made or have it done by a seamstress or 
dressmaker. 

In remodeling garments there is the additional work of rip- 
ping up the old and fitting the pattern to the cloth already cut 
up and possibly disfigured with holes or stains. On the basis of 
our study it is estimated that nearly half of the housewives of 
Richmond do a great deal of remodeling, and, at least twenty 
per cent, do some. In many of the poorer homes most of the sew- 
ing consists of remodeling old clothes given them. Children in 
the family usually make necessary more remodeling. The state- 
ment of one housewife may be taken as typical. 'T do a great 
deal of mending. I do some remodeling of my own clothes and a 
great deal for the children." 

Mending consists of darning holes in stockings or rents in 
dresses, sewing on buttons, hooks and eyes, and patching. The 
skill required varies according to the fabric and the value of the 
garment. Two housewives said mending took half a day a week. 
One said, "the amount of mending is terrific." More than half 
said they did a great deal of mending. Twelve said they did 
''some." One schedule reads, ''mends and remodels some; goes 
ragged." Another stated, "mending was sadly neglected, young- 
er children wore older children's clothing without remodeling." 
The richest and the poorest classes do the least mending or sew- 
ing. 

The amount of hat trimming done varies even more than the 
dressmaking and for much the same reasons. Millinery for the 
housewife involves in type, the same work as that of the milliner. 

The most popular "fancy work" of to-day is crocheting and 
tatting. It is not to be taken seriously as a part of the house- 
wives' inevitable tasks because it is so largely done as "pick up 
work," and as a minor entertainment at teas and club meetings. 
It provides excellent and artistic trimmings at a minimum of ex- 
pense. 

Caring for children — Children make not only more work but 
work of a highly specialized nature. Sewing for children is a 
whole field in itself, not only because of differences in style and 
pattern, but in the selection of the textiles best fitted for children. 
The amount of mending and remodeling increases greatly in ratio 
according to the number of children in the family. 

Of the forty-five families visited in which there were children 



412 Occupational Information [Part II 

under eighteen, fourteen of these had only two children; eleven 
had four children and nine had five or more. One family had 
five children under six years of age and one had seven chil- 
dren under thirteen years. Five of the housewives visited had 
babies less than a year old. In three of these families there were 
four or more other children. 

The baby makes a great deal more work. If it is breast fed 
the problem of feeding is simple but demands that the mother 
plan her own diet very carefully. When the baby is fed with the 
bottle the mother must select a food that agrees with it, the prep- 
aration of which involves unusual care in keeping utensils sterilized 
and food in a sanitary condition. The mother usually follows the 
directions of the doctor, both in regard to the selection and prep- 
aration of the food. As the child grows, food and clothing should 
be adapted to its development. Feeding and clothing, however, 
do not include half of the task of caring for the baby. The 
mother can never plan to do anything else without the possibility 
of interruption, nor can she leave the baby alone. There are 
countless little things to be done all the time; picking up toys, 
changing clothes, drying tears and wiping noses. 

The mother also has the duty of training the children to do 
household duties. Many mothers train both boys and girls to 
help with the work of the home. Some begin by giving them cer- 
tain tasks around the house, such as keeping a particular closet 
clean, putting away their own clothes or doing errands. Many 
take advantage of the natural instincts for play and imitation 
and let the child imitate what is being done in washing dishes, 
cooking and sewing. Many mothers teach sewing by taking pains 
to show the little girl how to dress her doll. While the child is 
in school the mother usually visits the school more or less fre- 
quently and helps in school work. The help given depends largely 
on the education of the mother and the help needed by the in- 
dividual child. The mother is responsible for the hours spent 
out of school. Recreation should be supervised. Some mothers 
spend much time and thought on entertainments which will 
provide legitimate amusement and cultivate good companions 
for their children. A few also teach their children something be- 
sides household work such as music, drawing, or language. Many 
mothers also advise in the selection of a vocation. 

Keeping household accounts. — In some families the whole 
income is turned over to the housewife and she manages it even 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 413 

to buying her husband's clothes and giving him money for lunches 
and car fare; with others, the housewife has no definite idea of the 
income at all. One housewife says she ''keeps no accounts and 
has no allowance, spends whatever she feels necessary for com- 
fortable living," another, "always gets money when she asks for 
it and no questions asked how she spends it." In the majority 
of families, husband and wife manage the income jointly and have 
a common pocket book, or the housewife has a definite allowance 
for household and personal expenses. 

The latter plan usually gives the housewife the task of paying 
the bills. Some pay in a businesslike way on the first of the month 
or weekly or bi-weekly at the time of the regular pay day. Some 
"meet accounts when convenient." One reports "quit spending 
when purse is empty or credit no good." A great many always 
pay cash. 

But few of the housewives in Richmond make out a budget 
beforehand to apportion income to various needs ;-rent, food, 
clothing, savings, etc. A few instances were found where it was 
done to a small degree as the housewife who "sets so much aside 
for food, savings, etc., and knows just exactly where the money 
is to be spent each week." Some plan so that more than one large 
bill does not fall due in the same week. Another, evidently on 
larger income says, "after each pay day we take out the money 
we think will be necessary to manage the house and put the rest in 
the bank." Another "limits amount spent for food so that they 
may have money for taxes, etc." Most housewives buy what 
they need and practice economy in general. One has different 
boxes for money, for food, clothing, etc., and places in each the 
money apportioned to that expense. 

Eight of the housewives visited keep an account of how the 
income is spent. Some depend on itemized bills from the grocer, 
butcher and dry goods merchant. Others bank all their money 
and pay only by check. A great many do not keep accounts at 
all. Four said they used to keep accounts but had discontinued 
them. The value of the practice was naively admitted by the 
housewife who reports, "no account kept excepting spasmodically, 
when I feel that I have been spending too much." 

Planning the work of the household. — Owing to the multiplicity 
of her duties efficient management is the keynote of the house- 
wife's whole job. It is affected directly by the amount of work to 
be done, age of children to be cared for ,^ help employed and out- 



414 Occupational Information [Part II 

side activities of the housewife. One housewife says she ''has a 
very hard time planning work because baby interrupts so often," 
and that ''daily work varies a good deal because my husband's 
work makes him miss a good many meals. At rush seasons I 
may help him at the office." If the housewife is not to be ov^er- 
whelmed by her work it must be systematized carefully. Most 
housewives have an invariable weekly schedule such as the follow- 
ing: Monday, cleaning; Tuesday, washing: Wednesday, ironing; 
Thursday, sweeping upstairs; Friday, sweeping downstairs; 
Saturday, cooking and baking. Some housewives, notably those 
with comparatively little to do and many outside interests, or with 
loose systems, do not wish to tie themselves to any regular schedule 
but vary it week by week: some plan only from day to day. 

There is so much to be gained by reducing the regular daily 
work to as much of a system as possible. Cooking and cleaning 
are done every day. A few women set a time limit and give them- 
selves until half past eight or nine in the morning to get the break- 
fast dishes washed and the necessary cleaning done. A very few 
plan meals several days ahead in order to make the daily work 
easier, and buy well in advance so that it is not necessary to run 
to the corner grocery at the last minute. Most of the house- 
wives interviewed planned dinner and supper after breakfast and 
did the buying for the day at that time. With one, "meals are 
planned as time comes; for food I go to nearby grocery and get 
what I can." Another, "plans meals as they come." Most 
Richmond families have dinner at noon. With some no leisure 
seems to be possible. One "works all day and into the night." 
Afternoons used so far as possible for sewing, fancy-work or other 
work compatible with receiving neighborly calls. 

Special Knowledge and Skill Required 

For buying. — By far the greatest porportion of the retail 
purchasing is done by women. Groceries, dry goods and depart- 
ment stores, and five and ten cent stores sell to women almost 
entirely. Drug stores, hardware stores and jewelry stores deal 
with housewives a great deal although not in so large a propor- 
tion. This demands, in every phase, a wide and detailed knowl- 
edge of retail prices and markets, both local and general. The 
woman must know where to go for what she wants, whether it is 
a house or a hairpin and she must have an idea of what the price 
should be. Much shoddy material is purchased because the 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 415 

housewife does not know how to use her money to the best advan- 
tage and thinks she is paying for utiUty when she is paying for 
appearance. In renting or buying a house she must know some- 
thing of real estate vahies and the elements affecting them. When 
purchasing furniture she should also be able to judge it from the 
point of view of material, finish and construction. In buying 
fuel she must know prices and kinds available. In bujdng clothes, 
linens and draperies for the house she must know textiles; in buy- 
ing groceries, she must know different brands of stock and how to 
select meats, vegetables and fruits. Such knowledge would be 
of mutual benefit to housewife and merchant. Buying involves 
a knowledge of styles and '^the correct thing." It also involves 
knowledge of facilities for deliveries. 

This may be purely local or may demand some understanding 
of freight, express and parcel post service. She should know the 
local markets. Another advantage is to know what can be 
purchased by catalog and something of the reputation of the large 
mail order firms in the country. It is desirable that she should 
know the ethics of shopping which involves early Christmas 
shopping, no late Saturday night shopping and consideration 
about keeping articles sent on approval. 

For selecting the house. — In order to select a location for the 
house intelligently the housewife must thoroughly know the 
different sections of town. This involves a knowledge of the 
general character of the neighborhood and its sanitation. For 
instance, some houses in Richmond are so far from sewers that 
connection is not practical; in one section bedrock is so near the 
surface that cellars are very hard to excavate and drainage is 
difficult. Higher altitudes generally afford better circulation 
of air and greater freedom from smoke. The housewife should 
understand the general principles of drainage in order to apply 
standards to the local situation. She should know something of 
house construction in order to judge, not only whether the house 
is conveniently planned for her family, but whether it is well 
built, including good foundations, good walls, good chimneys and 
good cellar drainage. The rooms should be sunny, well lighted and 
ventilated. 

For furnishing the house. — House furnishing demands a broad 
knowledge of interior decoration. The housewife should know 
how to plan the furnishings of the house on the monej^ available. 
In selecting furniture she should know different woods and finishes 



416 Occupational Information [Part II 

and something of the construction of furniture, in order to be 
able to buy what is useful, durable, comfortable and easy to keep 
clean. She should know the wall finishes which are possible, and 
the textiles best adapted for draperies. All this is merely a foun- 
dation for securing beauty of effect and comfort in arrangement. 
She should be able to achieve harmony throughout the whole 
house as well as in each individual room, although decoration 
of each room must be suited to its peculiar need and lighting. 

For keeping the house sanitary. — The housewife should know 
enough about plumbing to keep the pipes from getting stopped up, 
demand the right system and recognize need for repairs. She 
should know something of water and milk supply. A knowledge 
of the principles of ventilation and the degree of humidity which 
is the most healthful is necessary. She should also know how to 
guard against and exterminate household pests. 

The selection of the heating system requires knowledge of 
house sanitation, general principle of stove heat, and various 
furnace systems, such as hot air, hot water, steam and the com- 
binations. The actual building and tending of the fire can be 
learned mostly by experience. The choice of fuel requires knowl- 
edge of kinds of wood, coal and gas available and their suitability 
to the heating system in use. If lamps are used, the housewife 
should know how to keep them in good working condition. 
Kerosene and gasoline are somewhat dangerous and the house- 
wife must be able to guard against dangers incident to their use. 

For cleaning. — The housewife should know the best methods 
of cleaning and laundry work. She should know the different 
machines used and labor saving devices. She needs the knowledge 
of the laundry washerwoman and dry cleaner to adapt cleaning 
methods to fabrics in removing spots and stains. A knowledge 
of the different soaps is necessary in order to choose the right kind 
for her particular use. Besides soap there are may patent cleaners, 
disinfectants and water softeners which make the work easier. 
She should know which is most effective and least injurious to 
the hands and the surface to be cleaned. 

For planning, selection and preparation of meals. — The house- 
wife must know how to prepare the dishes which are to be served. 
This involves some experience and careful following of the recipe. 
She must also know how to make the meals appetizing and health- 
ful; how to set the table neatly and correctly and how to serve. 
More fundamental than the buying, preparation and serving is a 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 417 

knowledge of dietetics and the science of nutrition which will 
enable her to plan a well balanced diet and adapt it scientifically 
to the material available and the needs of her family. 

For seiving. — The selection of the wardrobe requires a knowledge 
of style, color combination and textiles in regard to their durability, 
beauty and economy and proper adaptation of style and color to 
figure and complexion. The knowledge required for sewing is 
discussed in Chapter XIII, "Ladies Tailoring, Dressmaking and 
General Sewing." 

For caring for children — Rearing of children demands special 
knowledge of dietetics, infant feeding, milk, modification of milk, 
special foods, etc. The clothing of the child calls for the selection 
of a specialized style of garment and textile. Household sanita- 
tion and hygienic living are more important for children than for 
grown people. The care of children almost inevitably demands 
some knowledge of nursing. In order to train the child the mother 
should know something of child psychology and kindergarten 
methods. She. must know how to teach the children and direct 
their work and play. 

Accounting. — The housewife should know how to apportion 
expense to income. She should know what proportion may be 
spent for shelter, operating expense, higher life, clothes and food. 
Budget making is really more essential to scientific housekeeping 
than the strict keeping of accounts. Accounts must be analyzed 
to be of value. No great knowledge of bookkeeping is necessary 
to household accounting. 

Household management. — The housewife must know how to 
plan her work so that there will be no waste movements. She 
must have such a knowledge of relative values as to know what 
may be neglected. Dusting the piano is important but not so 
important as budget making and diet planning. Efficient manage- 
ment of such multiplicity of tasks requires real executive ability. 

The Housewife and Public Health 

Urban life has made desirable the shifting of the responsibility 
for certain household problems from individual to communit}' 
concern. The result is that the woman can no longer confine 
her work to the four walls of her home but must perform some of 
the household functions in a public way. 

Housing. — The selection of the house is simplified by the limits 
imposed on house construction by the State Housing Code. These 

27—5463 



418 Occupational Information [Part II 

laws fix a minimum standard in regard to the actual construction, 
safety from fire and over-crowding, both on the lot and inside the 
house. There is at present no plumbing code or inspector of 
plumbing in Richmond. 

Sewage, garbage and refuse disposal. — The disposal of sewage 
is necessarily a public function. Housewives must act together 
if an adequate sewage disposal system is to be secured. Lack of 
facilities for sewage connection and the consequent large number of 
privy vaults in Richmond constitute a menace not only to the 
particular neighborhood in which they exist but the whole city. 

Many housewives report that garbage disposal is not satis- 
factory. They have to call the town hair to get service at all. 
One woman in Riverdale couldn't remember when garbage had 
last been collected. Here again the individual responsibihty is 
of a public nature. 

Purity of water, milk and food supply. — The water supply is 
first of all a concern of the individual housewife. The wide- 
spread use of cistern water for all but drinking purposes makes 
this a question of individual concern in many instances. For 
the purity of the milk supply the housewife is almost entirely 
dependent on standards and honesty of the dealer as guaranteed 
by the vigilance of the city inspector. Only ten of the house- 
wives visited had actually seen the dairy from which their milk 
came. A few more had made inquiries of the inspector. Where 
there are babies, inspection of the family milk supply is of the 
greatest importance. 

The food inspection is no less a public function than milk 
inspection. Laws provide for the proper construction, ventila- 
tion, lighting and plumbing of all buildings in which food products 
are handled as well as illegalized dirt and adulteration and the 
employment of workers sick with communicable disease. The 
enforcement of such laws, however, depends upon the community 
conscience. 

Public utilities. — Public utilities of any nature affect the work 
of the housewife in some way. Cheapness and adequacy of the 
gas supply have made it possible for most Richmond housewives 
to use it for cooking. Cheapness and efficiency of electric light 
service have brought this most convenient of lighting systems 
within the reach of almost everyone. 

The cleanliness of the streets affects most directly the amount 
of house cleaning necessary and the public health. Street clean- 
ing and sprinkling are therefore of direct interest to the house- 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 419 

wife. The kind of paving makes a great difference in the amount 
of noise and the degree of cleanliness possible. 

Summary. — The housewife should know the housing code, 
ordinances regulating the disposal of garbage, refuse and sewage; 
laws regulating the milk and water supply and production and 
distribution of food and public utilities. She should know the 
laws governing education and the employment of children. It is 
desirable that she keep in touch with the work of the Federal 
Childrens' Bureau. 

Knowledge of the laws is not sufficient. She must know them 
critically and use her influence to the utmost to secure better and 
more adequate legislation. She should make it a special point 
to demand enforcement of the law and report any violations of the 
law to the proper authorities. 

How special knowledge and skill are acquired. — About half of 
the housewives visited had learned what they know of housework 
as girls at home. Twelve learned after they were married by 
painful experience and careful study. These methods of learn- 
ing afford at best a more or less traditional and unscientific 
knowledge of the job. Some of the college women who had no 
special training at all had studied it alone, not only from the 
purely practical standpoint of recipes and patterns, but had 
mastered the underlying theory of nutrition, dietetics, clothing, etc. 

Many take some magazines which deal with household work. 
Good Housekeeping was the most popular. Of the fashion maga- 
zines seven take the Ladies Home Journal, four The Pictorial 
Review, five The Delineator, and one the Harper's Bazaar. Four 
take American Cooking. Only one is getting the' Government 
publications on Home Economics. Most of them use cook books 
of some kind; several mentioned the Boston Cooking School 
Cook Book; some use only the cook books given away as advertise- 
ments for some special food or cooking device. 

Only nineteen had taken any special courses in household 
work. Five had worked in dressmaking shops. Adequate data in 
regard to the number of housewives enrolled in night school could 
not be secured, but seventy-seven of those in attendance definitely 
specified that they were occupied as housekeepers; about one- 
third of these were taking work not related directly to domestic 
science. 

Ten of the mothers visited learned to care for children as girls 
at home. In almost every case the mother learns something from 



420 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



the doctor and from the nurse. Here again a large number stated 
that they had learned mostly by experience and by reading. Sev- 
eral commented on the increase of the literature available. Man}^ 
take the Mother's Magazine. Several learned by experience 
which they frankly characterized as experimental. For instance, 
one ^'experimented on the older boy, so that the younger boy got 
along much better." One says she ''made no study of the mat- 
ter at all." Another says she "just picked it up." Another, 
"after the birth of the first three children, I made some study 
of infant care." 

Variable Factors in the Work of the Housewife 

Coinposition of the family and size of house. — Table 18 shows 
the variation among the different housewives visited. ' Forty- 
two live in houses of from six to eight rooms. One family of six 
lives in two rooms. The largest group (14) have four in the fam- 
ily. Six have eight or more in the family. 



TABLE 18 

Number of Families of Specified Size per Number of 
Rooms Occupied 



NUMBER IN 




Number of Rooms in House or Apartment 




To- 


FAMILY 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 or 
more 


tal 


1 












2 
5 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 








2 


2 












4 
3 

2 
2 
2 

1 
1 


1 
1 

1 


2 
1 
3 
1 

2 


11 


3 








1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 


3 
4 
1 

2 
2 


10 


4. . . 








14 


5 








S 


6. . . 


1 




2 


9 


7 


7 


8 or more . 






1 




1 


6 










Total 


1 




3 


8 


12 


15 


15 


3 


10 


67 



Every added room in the house means one more to furnish 
and keep clean. However this depends quite as much on the 
number of occupants. That is, it is harder to keep a few crowded 
rooms clean than it is a larger number of rooms with the same size 
family. The presence of children in the family makes more work 
of course. Work differs according to age and sex. It is some 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 421 

years before the boy or girl is competent to ''earn his keep" in 
the household. The work of some members may require irregular 
meal times, or early breakfasts. One housewife gets from six to 
eight breakfasts, one after the other, every morning for the var- 
ious members of the family. 

Servants. — Only eight of the. housewives interviewed kept 
servants all the time. Two servants relieve the housewife of all 
the actual work, except planning and supervision. One servant 
relieves the housewife of the routine of cleaning, sweeping, dust- 
ing, washing dishes and cooking. In Richmond the care of 
children is not delegated to servants except in a very minor way. 
The amount the servant does, however, depends on her ability 
and training. Nearly one-third of the housewives studied, em- 
ployed women for the day to do washing and cleaning. The work 
most frequently done by day workers is laundering, scrubbing and 
cleaning. Women who employ seamstresses in the home turn 
over to them the mending and remodeling and plain sewing which 
they would otherwise do themselves. 

The actual work is lightened by the employment of servants, 
but the employment of servants and their proper supervision re- 
quires managerial ability. The housewife should know how to 
do the actual work in order to direct it intelligently. Checking 
up waste is more difficult when servants are employed. She must 
know how to train for housework for she can rarely find a maid 
who is satisfactorily trained. As a matter of fact, housewives 
who employ maids have a higher standard of living, the realiza- 
tion of which demands more attention to table service, clothing and 
interior decoration. 

Assistance to other members of the f amity. — The problem of 
the selection of the home is so fundamental to the good of the 
whole family that the whole responsibility should not be taken by 
one member; and furthermore, this problem is of such a general 
nature that sharing of responsibility is possible. Older children 
may take over a large part of the work and the responsibility of 
the home. School training in domestic science, which is received 
by the girls in Richmond, may react on the home work so strongly 
as to mean a practical reorganization of the household tasks. 

The husband. — The husband shares responsibility for the 
larger aspects of the work. Certain" duties are by custom usually 
his, such as building fires, making minor repairs and caring for 
the lawn and garden. As a usual thing he knows more than she 
about plumbing, heating, drainage and the public problems of 



422 Occupational Information [Part II 

sewage disposal, water supply and building regulation. The 
selection of furniture is frequently shared by the husband because 
he usually knows more about kinds of wood and furniture con- 
struction. In fact, he may complicate the whole scheme of 
furnishing by a propensity to auction sales or bargains in furni- 
ture. A few housewives say they have learned to cook and bake 
from their husbands. Care of the children, household account- 
ing, housing and interior decoration may well be shared responsi- 
bilities and duties. When the man manages the money, he may 
neglect the buying of labor saving devices and sanitary arrange- 
ments. 

Effect of occupation of wage-earners on work of housewife. — 
The occupation of the wage-earner is considered in this section in 
so far as it conditions the family income. It was difficult to de- 
cide on a basis for division into types of the families visited. 
Roughly, they were divided into four types according to employ- 
ment: W, professional workers; X, merchants, factory superin- 
tendents and managers; Y, salesmen and skilled tradesmen, and 
Z, unskilled laborers. Classes W and X would, of course, bring 
in the largest income, and Class Z, the smallest. Merely the 
fact of a more limited income increases the work of the poorer 
housewife because she cannot employ assistance, buy labor saving 
devices or have as great a spending margin. Only one of. the 
class Z housewives has her laundry work done. She has a family 
of eight. Seven of each W and Z, beside those who kept maids, 
had laundry work done by someone else. Of the eight house- 
wives visited who employed maids, four were of Class X, three of 
Class W and one of Class Y; of the labor saving devices reported, 
electric irons were used by two of Class Z as compared with nine 
of Class X, eleven of Class W and eight of Class Y. About as 
many of Class Z have washing machines as of the other types, 
but that is partly offset by the fact that more women of higher 
income send the laundry work out of the house and many of the 
poorer housewives take in washings to supplement the income. 
More of the X type than any other had vacuum cleaners. 

The smaller the margin between the income and the expendi- 
ture necessary to bare subsistence, the more difficult it is to plan 
ahead even to the extent of buying in quantity. One housewife 
says ''they buy from meal to meal and select the cheapest food." 

Other things being equal, it is evident that a smaller income 
demands more work and solution of harder problems for the house- 
wife. But other things are not equal. 



Chap. XXI] 



The Housewife 



423 



TABLE 19 

Number of Families of Specified Type and Size 



TYPE OF FAMILY 






Number in 


Family 








To- 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


i 


8 


9 


10 

and 
over 


tal 


W 


2 


4 
3 
4 


3 
3 
4 


5 
5 
3 

1 


1 
2 

3 
2 












15 


X 


3 
2 
4 


1 

2 
4 








17 


Y 




1 
2 






IQ 


Z.. 




2 


1 


16 












Total 


2 


11 


10 


14 


8 


9 


7 


3 


2 


1 


67 



Effect and size of family. — Table 19 shows that, on the whole, 
the size of the family is in indirect ratio to the income. Of the 
W type there was only one family with as may as five members; 
one of the X type with as many as seven members and more than 
fifty per cent, of the families of the W, X and Y types had from 
only two to four members. Fifty per cent, of the Z families vis- 
ited had seven members or more. On the whole, the housewife 
of limited means has not only more to do but more people to do 
for. Work is harder in the Z type families because unskilled 
laborers do dirtier work and so bring more dirt into the house 
and get their clothes more soiled. 

TABLE 20 

Number of Families According to Type and Number of 
Rooms Occupied 



TYPE OF 


Number of Rooms in House or Apartment 






FAMILY 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 or 
more 


Total 


W 










2 
2 

6 

2 


5 
3 
5 
2 


5 
4 
3 
3 


3 




3 
4 
2 
1 


15 


X 






1 
1 
1 


2 

6 


17 


Y. . 






19 


Z.. 


1 




16 






Total 


1 




3 


8 


12 


15 


15 


3 


10 


67 



424 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



Effect of size of house. — Coupled with the size of the family 
it is also true that the poorer housewife has fewer rooms to care 
for. Table 20 shows the poorer families live in smaller houses. 
Half of the Z type families live in five rooms or less while two-thirds 
of the W type occupy seven or eight rooms. 

TABLE 21 

Number of Families According to Type of Family and 
Education of Housewife 







Less 




High 


High 


Some 


Not 






TYPE OF 


than 


8th 


School 


School 


Col- 


Re- 






FAMILY 


8th 


Grade 


not 


Grad- 


lege 


port- 


Total 






Grade 




Grad- 
uate 


uate 


Work 


ing 




w 




1 
2 
6 


1 
5 


3 

7 


10 
4 
1 


4 
3 


15 


X 




17 


Y. 




4 


19 


Z.. 




7 


7 




1 




1 


16 


Total .... 


11 


16 


6 


11 


15 


8 


67 



Effect of education of housewife.— '^ot only has the poorer 
housewife harder problems to meet but she has less general knowl- 
edge and mental training with which to meet them. Table 21 
shows that nearly half of the Z housewives are not grammar school 
graduates. Only one of the Y type has a complete high school 
education. As compared with this, two-thirds of the W type 
housewives have had some college work. More of the X type 
housewives have taken special courses than any of the others. 

The difficulties incident to the lower income necessitates a 
lower standard of living. Poorer housewives do not cook so 
much or serve so elaborately. They sew less and mend more. 
Standards for style and amount of clothing are lower. Houses 
are not so completely furnished so there is less to keep clean. 
Limited education makes it impossible for the housewife to help 
the children in their school work. 

3^he wage-earning housewife. — Fifteen of the housewives visited 
were themselves earning money. Five were doing washing and 
cleaning, three were taking boarders, one worked in a factory, 
and three were professionally employed. Outside employment 
means necessarily that the housework is neglected. With some 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 425 

women it is reduced to a matter of distinctly secondary import- 
ance. Women who earn a good salary can have much of the house- 
hold work done by others and so maintain high standards. The 
woman who is earning only a dollar or a dollar and a half a day, 
must expend all of it for the bare necessities of life. The house 
must go dirty. The children are ragged and given responsibilities 
beyond their years. Sewing is neglected and cooking is done 
poorly and without system. 

The immigrant housewife. — The foreign population in Rich- 
mond is at present proportionately small and not rapidly increas- 
ing. The most evident difficulty peculiar to the immigrant 
housewife is her ignorance of the English language. This made 
it difficult for the Survey to obtain information in regard to her 
work. She is limited in her buying to the stores where she can 
make herself understood or is obliged to depend on the children. 
She has the problem of adjusting European ways of housekeeping 
to American customs. Some of the immigrant families send to 
large importing firms to get the kinds of food to which they are 
accustomed. Most immigrants in Richmond work as laborers or 
small shopkeepers, so the foreign housewife has the burdens 
added by meagerness of income. She cannot of course help the 
children in school work. 

Attitude of Housewives to Continuation Courses 

Most of the housewives showed interest in continuation 
courses. Sewing was especially desired by eighteen. Cooking, 
nursing and sewing were frequently mentioned. Four house- 
wives wished the fundamental theory courses regarding dietetics 
and nutrition. Many of the housewives visited were older women 
who felt that they had solved the problems and that the school 
could not now help them. Many of these stated they would 
have been glad of such an opportunity in their earlier years of 
married life. Those with large families felt they could not find 
time to pursue courses. Mrs. B. said she ''would not have time 
to take any course while baby is so small." The wage-earning 
women either regard the housework as a subordinante issue or 
are too busy to take further training. One says she has 
''no time for any help as she must earn most of the living by 
washing." A few, notably the foreign housewives, want train- 
ing in English and other academic subjects rather than in house- 
hold work. 



426 Occupational Information [Part II 

Half of those who desired courses designated the afternoon as a 
more convenient time than the evening. Many cannot get away 
at night at all. 

It would be much more convenient if courses could be offered 
in the neighborhood school buildings as well as in the high school. 
One immigrant said he would be glad to have his wife go to White- 
water school but would on no account allow her to go downtown. 
Several of the housewives interviewed expressed definite preference 
tor classes offered in the local building. 



SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

This study of the work of the housewife has indicated the 
wide scope of the work, and the great variety of knowledge and 
skills required for efficiency. 

As a preparation for future home makers, the Survey has 
indicated in Chapter XXVII, ''Present Provisions for Industrial, 
Commercial and Household Art Instruction," that in the Junior 
High School, courses in the fundamentals of household arts should 
be required of all girls. In the Senior High School, one phase of 
the liberal arts course, as recommended, will include household 
arts and one phase of the vocational courses, as recommended, will 
include trade sewing and cooking. These provisions recom- 
mended for the Junior High School and the Senior Hihg School 
are probably adequate for those who remain in the school system. 

The girls who most need preparatory work in homemaking 
are those who have left school at fourteen or fifteen to go to work. 
The provisions suggested for compulsory trade extension and con- 
tinuation education in Chapter XVII will make possible giving the 
needed household arts courses to the girls who are now at work. 

The needs of the present Richmond housewives will have to 
be met by afternoon and evening courses and through the work of 
visiting housekeepers and nurses. Many of the younger house- 
wives expressed the desire for courses in nursing, care and feeding 
of children, sewing, cooking, dietetics and home furnishing. 
About half of those interviewed preferred that these courses be 
given in the afternoon, and many expressed the earnest hope 
that the courses might be offered in the various ward school 
buildings rather than the high school building. The Survey 
Committee recommends that these courses suggested be given at 
the time and place desired by the housewives. 



Chap. XXI] The Housewife 427 

The course of instruction suggested, while meeting the needs 
of many Richmond housewives, will not meet the needs of all. 
The problems of the dependent home where the housewife is also 
wage-earner, and the home of the uneducated foreigner or native 
born white person, can probably be best met by the traveling 
housekeeper and nurse. Such teachers should go where the 
need is greatest, holding demonstrations, giving instruction and 
assisting in every way possible in raising the standard of home, 
in developing proper standards of living, of child birth and rais- 
ing, and sanitation. 



CHAPTER XXII 



HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT: THE GRADUATE, 

PRACTICAL, JUNIOR AND 

HOME NURSE 

History of the occupation. — In A. D. 380, Fabiola, a rich patri- 
cian lady of decadent Rome, inspired by religious motives, founded 
the first hospital known in the world's history. She and her 
helpers nursed the sick, cared for the weary and fed the hungry 
and others followed her example. 

When, in 1544, St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London was 
re-established by Henry VIII, a corps of one matron and twelve 
nurses were employed on regular and part-time duty. The 
women employed were domestic servants, serving at their regular 
occupation when not on duty at the hospital. They were hard 
working drudges without education or training. 

Three centuries later, in 1836, Pastor Fliedner gathered a 
group of devout women about him at Kaiserwerth and founded 
an institute for the training of nurses. Occasional lectures had 
been given in many hospitals in England, America, France and 
Germany by physicians particularly interested in certain aspects 
of training, but no steps had been taken to organize or systematize 
the work. Pastor Fliedner, like Fabiola, was imbued with the 
force of religious motive and his insight into the needs of the 
occupation gave new impetus to its progress. Two years later 
The Society of Friends in Philadelphia founded a similar nursing 
organization. Twenty years later the horrible conditions on the 
battlefields of the Crimea inspired Florence Nightingale, a trained 
English nurse, to extend the field of nursing to the distant battle- 
fields. The relief and lowered death rate among the wounded 
soldiers forced new issues upon the medical world. The question 
of the required amount of special knowledge and skill led to the 
establishment, in 1860, of a hospital training school in connection 
with St. Thomas' Hospital, London, wherein the work was def- 
initely divided into probation, training, and actual service. Def- 
inite courses of study were organized, standards of physical and 
mental qualifications were indicated and recognition was given 
individuals completing the course. 

It was not until 1880, however, that the religious motive 

(429) 



430 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

was supplemented, and, in many cases, supplanted by a scientific 
interest in the profession. The invention of new instruments and 
scientific progress in medicine made possible giant strides in the 
nurses' work, until now it is a recognized profession of high 
standing. 

Status of the occupation. — The occupation of graduate nurse, 
due to state control of qualifications and training, has attained 
the status of a profession. Definite moral, physical and mental 
qualifications are now required, as well as three years of training 
in an accredited training school. 

Such standardization has resulted in a high wage schedule and 
given rise to the complimentary occupation of practical nurse. 
The great mass of people are unable to pay the standard wage of 
the graduate nurse so that their need has been met, not by the 
scientifically trained expert in nursing, but by the semi-skilled 
or unskilled nurse whose status depends upon the individual's 
particular experience, prestige and adaptability. No definite 
standards of qualifications have been required of this type of 
nurse either by the housewife or the physician with whom she 
worked. In a few states efforts have been made to standardize 
the qualifications of the practical nurse through required regis- 
tration, but in Indiana there is no such law. The status of the 
practical nurse in Richmond varies from that of experienced ser- 
vant to the intelligent woman who ranks alongside the graduate 
nurse. 

The term ' 'Junior Nurse" is here applied to young women who 
care for children during the absence of the parents. The work bears 
no direct relation to nursing as a profession. 

The work of the home nurse is also unstandardized. It is not 
recognized as a distinct occupation and was studied by the Sur- 
vey as a part of the work of the housewife. It is considered here 
in relation to the problems of the qualifications and education of 
all women doing nursing. 

Scope and purpose of the study. — The actual work of the grad- 
uate nurse does not lie legitimately within the field of this Survey 
owing to its present professional status, but a comprehensive dis- 
cussion of the problems of nursing in Richmond must include a 
consideration of the pre-vocational training of nurses and the re- 
quirements for entrance to hospital training. The occupation of 
practical nurse has been studied to ascertain the obvious defi- 
ciencies in the personal qualifications of the worker, the educa- 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 431 

tion and training received and the possibilities of further train- 
ing and social control of these factors in view of probable stand- 
ardization. 

The work of the junior nurse was studied by the Survey 
owing to the large number of young women in Richmond engaged 
in it as an occupation during their college course and because such 
work is frequently the training school of the practical nurse. 

The work of the home nurse was studied to determine the actual 
requirements necessary for the efficient nursing of convalescent 
and light cases in the home. It is assumed that serious and 
complicated cases should not lie within the field of the unskilled 
home nurse. 

Occupations and number employed. — According to the United 
States Census of 1910 there were 1,612 registered or graduate 
nurses in Indiana, 1,516 of whom were women. In Richmond 
there are sixteen graduate nurses reported in the city directory 
and twenty-two in the county register. The census reports 
2,481 midwives and practical nurses in Indiana, 2,138 of whom 
are women. It is estimated, however, that there are ten times 
this number of practical nurses in Indiana. 

In Richmond there are forty-two practical nurses listed in 
the drug stores, two of whom are men. It is probable that this 
figure includes about one-third of those actually employed in this 
type of nursing. 

No data was obtained regarding the number of young women 
doing junior nursing. The housewives interviewed stated that they 
obtained the services of the young women through the Y. W. C. A. 
Employment Bureau at Earlham College and seldom employed 
the same young women continuously. 

sixty-five hundred housewives are estimated as residing in 
Richmond, all of whom are probably, at some time, employed as 
home nurses, or as assistants to a trained nurse. 

The Graduate Nurse 

Vocational problem involved. — In the study of the training of the 
graduate nurse, it was the purpose of the Survey to ascertain: (1) 
The usual age at which nurses complete the secondary school 
course; (2) the age required for entrance upon hospital training; 
(3) the possible gap of years between the completion of the sec- 
ondary school course, and the entrance upon hospital training; 
and (4) a possible economic use of the intervening years. 



432 Occupational Infokmation [Part II 

It was ascertained that the usual age on completing the sec- 
ondary schools is seventeen years. The age required for entrance 
upon hospital training is practically determined by the State law 
which reads: ''Applicant shall furnish satisfactory evidence that 
he or she is twenty-one years of age, of good moral character, has 
received the equivalent of a common-school education and has 
been graduated from a training school for nurses connected with 
a hospital approved by the Board, where a systematic course of 
three years of instruction is given." The entrance age is definitely 
fixed at eighteen years. 

Eighteen hospitals in Indiana report the following preferred 
ages of applicants for extrance: Two, eighteen years; five, nine- 
teen years; two, twenty years; and three, twenty-one years or 
over. Six did not report the definite age preferred. The ten- 
dency, however, is toward greater maturity. 

It is seen from the foregoing that for the future graduate nurse 
there may be a gap of from one to three or four years between her 
graduation from the high school and her entrance upon hospital 
training. The problem of how to best utilize the intervening 
years may be met by a study of the educational requirements of 
the hospitals of the State, since the problem is not limited to 
Richmond. 

Educational requirements. — Of the eighteen hospitals reporting 
entrance requirements, five required the completion of^ a secon- 
dary school; eleven required the completion of the elementary 
school but prefer graduates of secondary schools; one required 
the completion of one year of secondary school work, and one 
required the completion of two years of secondary school work. 

State training requirements. — The State of Indiana requires of 
the trained nurse, that she shall have taken a three years' course 
in an accredited training school covering the following subjects: 
Anatomy, physiology, bacteriology, hygiene and sanitation, med- 
ical and surgical nursing, nursing in children's diseases, gynecolog- 
ical and obstetrical nursing, nursing ethics, materia medica, 
practical nursing, and dietetics. In one or two instances, household 
economics, chemistry, biology and kindred subjects are added to 
the State curriculum. The care of the patient, such as bathing 
in bed, giving douches, enemas, etc., and the care of the sick 
room are obtained through actual experience in the hospital. 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 433 

The Practical Nurse 

Source of information. — For the intensive study of the work of 
the practical nurse there were three sources of information avail- 
able: The employer, or housewife; the physician, under whose 
direction most of the work is done; and the nurse herself. Inter- 
views were obtained from ten nurses, one of whom was a male 
nurse; ten housewives, covering the work of thirteen nurses; and 
six physicians. With the exception of one, all the nurses inter- 
viewed seem satisfied with their occupation. This is largely due 
to the fact that although economic necessity has pressed them 
into wage earning, their efficiency and personal inclinations dictated 
the choice of occupation. Six of those about whom information 
was obtained were widows, and one was a single woman advanced 
from a servant on account of her ''knack of caring for the sick.'' 
Three were "in love with their work." The one male nurse inter- 
viewed was sixty years old and out of work. All of those inter- 
viewed were American born and four were natives of Indiana. 

The employment of such a large number of practical nurses in 
Richmond prompted the Survey to investigate the qualifications 
and deficiencies of workers, and the conditions of labor, for the 
purpose of ascertaining what courses of study could be given in 
the public schools to better equip the future practical nurse, what 
complementary continuation courses could be given to practical 
nurses already in the field, and what scheme of public control 
could best be adopted by the city of Richmond. 

Nature of cases taken.— Oi the cases reviewed ten were ob- 
stetrical, two post surgical and three post obstetrical. Seven of 
the nurses reported most of their cases as obstetrical, two re- 
ported frequent calls for post surgical care, and one, for all light 
cases. Three took contagious cases when called, but rarely re- 
ceived such calls. Four positively declined to take any con- 
tagious disease; four had taken several cases of pneumonia; two 
refused all cases of old people, and one took only older people. 
Three were willing to take all kinds of cases and one took tubercular 
and mental cases most frequently. 

The physicians interviewed reported their work with practical 
nurses as mainly obstetrical. In the poorer families, they recom- 
mended these nurses for chronic or light cases, although one phy- 
sician seemed satisfied with the work of a practical nurse in a case 
of typhoid, and one in a case of pneumonia. They rarely recom- 
mended a practical nurse for a contagious disease. 

28—5463 



434 Occupational Information [Part II 

What the worker does. — The nurses reported their work as: (1) 
Care of patient, under which four reported special cooking; four, 
baths in bed; four, use of carboHc acid and boric acids; two, the 
giving of enemas; four, the use of the thermometer; one, the use 
of the hypodermic syringe; two, the use of the catheter; two, the 
keeping of a hospital chart; and one, the giving of douches; (2) 
care of the room, under which four reported the use of disin- 
fectants; (3) care of baby, under which the bathing, feeding and 
washing of the clothing was included; and (4) the general work 
under which two reported all general housework of small families; 
five reported the cooking for a family of any size; one, no general 
housework; and three, assistance in the housework by servant. 

The ten housewives reported that the duties of the practical 
nurses employed by them are to care for the patient and baby, 
and also to take care of the room and general housework of the 
home. Eight reported no special diet required and two reported 
special cooking for the patient. Six reported that no housework 
had been expected of them; eight reported doing all the house- 
work, and three reported receiving assistance from other mem- 
bers of the family in doing housework. Only two reported 
giving bed baths. 

The physician's statement of the scope of the work of the 
practical nurse was less definite. Three stated that few practical 
nurses could take the temperature of the patient. All those 
interviewed doubted whether a practical nurse could use a hypo- 
dermic syringe or catheter, give douches properly, or keep a hos- 
pital chart. As to other work than the care of the patient, the 
physicians thought a nurse was usually expected to do the baby's 
laundry, care for the sick room, do some general housework when 
the family was small and sometimes assume all the duties of 
housewife, such as ordering supplies, cooking, cleaning, and car- 
ing for other children. When no physician attends an obstetrical 
case the nurse is required by law to register the birth of the child. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Of the ten practical nurses 
interviewed, five were sixty years old, four were between fifty and 
sixty, and the unmarried woman, advanced from household ser- 
vice, was thirty-five. All physicians interviewed favored younger 
nurses, but the housewives interviewed preferred the older nurses. 
Aside from age, seven housewives reported the need of unusual 
strength, seven reported the need of good judgment, five reported 
the need of personal neatness and neatness about their work, five 
reported the need of good health, four specified an attractive per- 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 435 

sonality as essential, two specified an amiable disposition as a 
prerequisite, two emphasized the need of a clear memory and 
others mentioned the advantage of alertness, kindliness, intelli- 
gence and truthfulness. 

The physicians demanded conscientiousness, neatness, honesty 
and physical ability to lift, bathe and attend the patient, bat no 
definite standards of physical or mental requirements are recog- 
nized by them. It is to be assumed that sound health, large 
physique, good hearing and eyesight are essential to meet the phys- 
ical demands of the occupation. Tact, resourcefulness, good mem- 
ory, judgment, conscientiousness, a cheerful disposition and cleanly 
habits are essential to success. 

General education required. — Two of the nurses interviewed had 
finished an elementary school course in the country; the others 
had dropped out apparently before the eighth grade, as they did 
not give accurate data. The more intelligent deplored their de- 
ficiencies and thought that every practical nurse should grad- 
uate from a secondary school before entering the field of nursing. 
The housewives specified as prerequisite the ability to read and 
write; the physicians emphasized the ability to read instructions 
accurately and write legibly on the charts. Both phySxCians and 
housewives thought an elementary school course essential and a 
secondary school or college course very desirable. 

What the nurses lack. — Of the fourteen nurses employed by the 
housewives interviewed, ten were reported as having done their 
work satisfactorily, and four as unsatisfactorily. One patient 
required an operation due to improper care at the birth of her 
child, and another reported infant eye infection due to the care- 
lessness of the nurse. One mother reported the saving of her 
infant's life due to the good judgment and speed of the nurse in 
attendance. Upon closer investigation it was found that the 
housewives employing practical nurses are generally of the poorer 
class. The practical nurse is called in only at the time of their 
child bearing, which in eighty per cent, of the cases is normal and 
without the result of serious complications due to the lack of 
surgical cleanliness. Where complications arise the patient is as 
ignorant of the requirements of the case as the nurse and there- 
fore does not trace the result to the inefficiency of the nurse. The 
physicians picture the work of the practical nurse in dark colors. 
One surgeon interviewed expressed a horror of their work. The 
others, more lenient in their judgment, found, nevertheless, a long 



436 Occupational Information [Part II 

list of deficiencies, chief of which was a lack of open mindedness 
or ambition to learn. Specifically, the practical nurse has been 
found to be faulty in the knowledge and use of antiseptics, sur- 
gical cleanliness, general technique of the care of the bed, bathing 
of patient, use of thermometer, catheter, hypodermic syringe, 
douche and enema procedure, as well as ignorant of medical terms, 
chart keeping and emergency methods. 

Special knowledge required. — The practical nurse being em- 
ployed, almost exclusively by families unable to employ a servant is 
required to know how to cook and clean house. She is generally 
selected by the housewife on the basis of her ability to keep house 
and cook well. The housewives, when questioned, thought that 
a knowledge of dietetics, proper care of the patient and sick room, 
medical terms, emergency measures, proper ventilation, use of 
disinfectants, as well as a working knowledge of physiology, anat- 
omy and hygiene, were essential for success, but none of the nurses 
they had employed had even a slight knowledge of these subjects. 

The physicians enumerated the special knowledge required as 
follows: Some knowledge of technical terms, anatomy, sanita- 
tion, hygiene, physiology, theory of surgical cleanliness, bathing, 
alcohol rubs, care of the bed, giving enemas, douches, hypodermic 
injections, catheterizing, taking temperature and a knowledge of 
emergency measures and dietetics. Aside from these purely 
technical requirements, the physicians recognized the necessity 
for a knowledge of general housework. 

Special skill required. — A special type of skill is required by the 
practical nurse in bathing, lifting and massaging a patient while 
in bed. A high degree of specialized skill is required in using a 
hypodermic syringe, a catheter and a douche or enema outfit. 
Special skill in bandaging and in emergency measures is essential. 
The caring for a new born infant requires skillful manipulation in 
bathing, rubbing, dressing and handling. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The special 
knowledge and skill required for a practical nurse is obtained in 
three ways, e. g., by experience either as a paid or unpaid nurse 
in the home or elsewhere, by instruction from physicians under 
whom they are working, or by reading books and magazines on the 
subject. Four nurses reported having acquired their knowledge 
and skill by experience in their own family, four learned through 
the care of neighbors, seven reported having learned the major 
part of their knowledge through experience on their cases, and 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 437 

five reported having learned a great deal from the physicians 
with whom they worked. Four reported acquaintance with books 
and magazines of a professional nature, one helped in a sick room 
while a servant in the home, one reported twenty-one months in 
a hospital training school and one reported having taken a Chau- 
tauqua correspondence course. The housewives and physicians 
interviewed concurred with the reports of the majority of the 
nurses in that the special knowledge and skill are obtained mostly 
by experience on the job. 

Promotion. — The only promotion possible to a practical nurse 
is in advanced salary and greater frequency of cases. Three 
nurses had been nursing for ten or twelve years, two for five 
years, one for four years and one for three years. The others 
stated that they had been nursing all their lives. The advance- 
ment gained during this working period, had, in most of the 
cases, been very slight. The nature of the work requires a short 
rest period between cases, which makes too great a frequency of 
calls undesirable. The fact that they are employed by people 
who cannot afford more competent nurses limits their advance in 
salary. 

Source and selection of workers. — In the majority of the cases 
the nurses were selected upon the recommendation of relatives 
and friends. Of fifteen cases of employment, seven were upon 
recommendation of relatives or friends, four upon recommenda- 
tion of the attending physician, two upon reference to the list of 
registered practical nurses in local drug stores, and three upon 
personal trial. Most of the nurses were registered at one or more 
drug stores in the city, one had given her card to the physicians 
with whom she worked, but all depended chiefly upon their former 
employers and friends to recommend them. The selection of a 
nurse is most frequently made by the employer either upon the 
advice of a physician or friend, the physician assuming no respon- 
sibility for the financial transaction or the efficiency of the nurse. 

Working hours. — Where work and salaries are as unstandard- 
ized as in the case of the practical nurse, the working hours depend 
almost entirely upon the individual. Eight of the ten house- 
wives interviewed stated that the nurse was expected to be on 
duty all of the twenty-four hours. Eight hours of sleep and two 
hours of rest during the day are presumably obtained at such 
times as are convenient to the patient, that is, they are obtained 
when the nurse's services are not required by the patient. Five 



438 Occupational Information [Part II 

physicians coincided with this opinion, but one stated that he 
made arrangements with the family for ten hours of rest for the 
nurse. Six of the practical nurses also stated that they were on 
duty twenty-four hours daily, but three stated that frequently, 
when the work was done, they took an hour or two off for recrea- 
tion; three insisted upon two hours off during the daytime, and 
one required three hours off duty during the day. The male 
nurse interviewed worked only on a twelve-hour shift. 

Seasonahleness. — Although the demand for the work of a prac- 
tical nurse is almost constant throughout the year, several of the 
physicians reported a slight decrease in the number of cases de- 
manding this type of nursing during the spring and fall. The 
increase in children's illnesses during the summer makes it a stren- 
uous season for the practical nurse, and the illnesses resulting 
from the cold weather make January and February very busy 
months. In obstetrical work the nurse frequently loses a week 
or two between cases but those interviewed stated that at least 
this much time was required between cases for rest. 

Wages. — Of the wages reported by the employers the lowest 
was four dollars and fifty cents a week and the highest twenty 
dollars, the average being slightly over thirteen dollars a week. 
The physicians reported the range of weekly wages from seven to 
twenty dollars with an average wage of fifteen dollars. This, it is 
seen, is slightly above the average reported either by the employer 
or the nurses. The nurses reported a range in wages from ten to 
twenty-five dollars per week with an average wage of thirteen dol- 
lars per week. 

Working conditions. — The conditions under which practical 
nurses work range from the unsanitary filth of the poor country and 
city slum homes to the comfort and convenience of a well equipped 
household. One nurse interviewed took a majority of the poorer 
cases and worked almost constantly under very bad conditions, 
by which is meant, no plumbing conveniences or separate sleep- 
ing accomodations. Three of the nurses reported that they most 
frequently slept in the room with the patient and the same num- 
ber reported that on most of their cases they were given a separate 
room. The physicians reported the working conditions of prac- 
tical nurses as generally very good, but as they had no standard 
of good conditions in mind, their descriptive adjective is of httle 
value. The lack of standardization is noted here as elsewhere 
throughout the study of the practical nurse. 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 439 

Hazards. — The consensus of opinion of the practical nurses, 
housewives and physicians seemed to be that there were no in- 
herent hazards in the work of the practical nurse. As they rarely 
take contagious diseases, the danger of infection is very slight. 
The strain upon the back in lifting patients was mentioned by 
several nurses, but assistance in such work is usually obtained from 
some member of the household or the patient herself. The ner- 
vous strain is seldom severe. The frequent rest of a week or two 
between cases gives ample opportunity for recovery from the 
nervous strain undergone. 

The Junior Nurse 

Source of information. — For the study of the work of the junior 
nurse the Survey interviewed four typical employers who were 
housewives requiring the services of an intelligent young woman 
to care for their children during their absence. 

What the worker does. — The junior nurse stays in the house and 
cares for the children while the parents are away. In the families 
studied there were from one to three children. The employment 
is usually for the evening and the children are generally asleep 
when the parents leave. However, the junior nurse is at times 
required to feed the baby according to the directions of the 
mother, undress and put the baby to bed and sometimes prepare 
a meal that has been planned by the housewife. One junior nurse 
cared for the baby during the day and did the baby's laundry. 

Mental and physical requirements. — Good health, reliable con- 
scientious disposition, a liking for children, and the ability to meet 
emergencies intelligently are required of a junior nurse. 

General education required. — Most of the junior nurses in Rich- 
mond are students in Earlham College and so have had an unusual 
general education. At least an elementary education is required 
and a secondary school education is desirable for work in junior 
nursing. 

What the junior nurses lack. — The junior nurses in Richmond 
show no marked deficiencies owing to their extended education, 
but some are reported as unable to manage children. 

Special knowledge and skill required. — Some experience with 
children is desirable, and a knowledge of how to prepare milk and 
care for a baby is essential. For continued work in this field a 
knowledge of bathing, dressing and doing a baby's laundry would 
be beneficial. 



440 Occupational Information [Part II 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Although a gen- 
eral knowledge of the care of children should have been acquired 
prior to going into the field, all specialized knowledge and skill 
may be obtained on the job. 

Promotion. — No direct promotion is possible but experience in 
this field leads directly into practical nursing. 

Source and selection of workers. — The employers interviewed 
had obtained the services of the junior nurses through the Y. W. 
C. A. Employment Bureau at Earlham College. The selection 
was made t)y trial on the job. 

Working hours and wages. — The employment of the junior 
nurse is irregular. Her services are usually required during the 
afternoon or evening. The working conditions are good. There 
are no inherent dangers and the wage paid is ten cents an hour. 

The Home Nurse 

Source of information. — In spite of the increasing demand for 
trained nurses the bulk of all nursing is still done by the housewife 
and therefore a comprehensive study of the occupation of nursing 
must include an analysis of the home nurse or housewife. For 
this purpose a list of questions on nursing was included in the 
schedule of the housewives interviewed. Sixty-one reports were 
obtained, being typical of the work of 6,500 housewives in the 
city of Richmond. 

Scope and purpose of the study. — The scope of this study in- 
cludes all the work of the housewife connected with the care of 
the sick, such as invalid cookery, care of the sick room and use of 
disinfectants. The purpose of the study is to determine the exact 
nature of the work done, the requirements of successful home 
nursing, the deficiencies of the home nurse and the possible means 
for improvement. 

Nature of the cases taken. — Of the sixty-one housewives re- 
porting on home nursing, four had nursed cases of typhoid, five 
had nursed diphtheria, eight had nursed scarlet fever, two had 
nursed pneumonia, one had nursed a serious kidney affection, one 
had nursed a tubercular patient back to sound health, ten had 
nursed minor and children's diseases, and four had nursed general 
illnesses not listed above. 

What the worker does. — The" home nurse, aside from her duties 
as housewife, prepares special diets for patients; disinfects uten- 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 441 

sils, clothing and linen from the sick room; gives special care to 
the cleaning and arrangement of the sick room; gives medicine 
to the patient ; and takes general care of the patient such as bath- 
ing, alcohol rubs, massages, enemas and special treatments when 
necessary. Seventy-two per cent, of those interviewed had done 
all the nursing in the home and twenty-five per cent, had nursed 
serious cases. 

Mental and physical requirements. — The home nurse should be 
mentally alert and able to recall accurately the physicians' direc- 
tions. She should be physically strong and of sound health. 
Her personality should be pleasant and cheery. 

General education required. — For her duties as home nurse, the 
housewife should have completed a secondary school education. 
General knowledge of physiology, anatomy, physics and chem- 
istry are especially desirable. 

What the nurses lack. — The majority of home nurses have been 
found not only to lack the advantages of a thorough general edu- 
cation but also to lack the special knowledge and skill demanded 
of them. One housewife of the sixty-one interviewed has a scien- 
tific knowledge of nursing. Only one-third of those interviewed 
had any knowledge of invalid cookery or the use of disinfectants 
and less than one-fourth knew the simplest first-aid measures. 
Eight women did not know the names of any of the common anti- 
septics and eighteen housewives professed a total ignorance of the 
field. One-fourth of those interviewed had a slight knowledge 
of the general care of the patient but only one-tenth could detect 
contagious diseases. All of those professing a knowledge in the 
use of disinfectants, general care of the patient and invalid cook- 
ery, stated that their knowledge had been acquired in connection 
with a specific situation and it is to be seriously doubted if the 
knowledge, even in these cases, would be broad enough to carry 
over into different situations. The ignorance of the use of the 
thermometer, hypodermic syringe, catheter, douche and enema 
outfit, materia medica, as well as a working knowledge of physi- 
ology, anatomy, sanitation, hygiene and surgical cleanliness are 
marked deficiencies of the home nurse. 

Special knowledge and skill required. — As definite a range of 
special knowledge and skill are required of the home nurses as of 
the trained nurses. They should be able to detect contagious 
diseases in the incipient stages and know when to call a physi- 
cian. The list of specialized subjects and skill required have been 



442 Occupational Information [Part II 

reported under the study of the practical nurse. Aside from these 
a home nurse should be able to recognize the difference between 
proprietary and patent medicines and how to use the former in 
cases not requiring the attendance of a physician. Twenty per 
cent, of the housewives used patent medicines while forty per 
cent, claimed that they used none. The confusion of proprietary 
and patented medicines led many of those interviewed to inac- 
curately report the use of either. Nearly one-third used simple 
home remedies such as castor oil, peroxide, cascara, camphor, tur- 
pentine, lard, herbs, iodine, liniments, kerosene, antiphlogistian, 
quinine and vaseline. An accurate knowledge of the use of these 
and other simple remedies are prerequisite to efficient home 
nursing. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — The home nurse 
has at present but two means of acquiring special knowledge and 
skill in her work aside from training in a hospital which is ob- 
viously impracticable. They are experience on the job and 
reading available literature on the subject of nursing. The former 
probably costs the city of Richmond several hundred lives a year 
and the latter is open to several serious objections, chief of which 
is the impossibility of teaching most of the subjects from written 
instructions. A knowledge and skill of first aid measures, bath- 
ing of patient and enema, douche and catheterizing procedure 
cannot be obtained from written instructions. Such basic knowl- 
edge as is found in text-books for nurses on the subjects of physi- 
ology, anatomy, hygiene, sanitation, surgical cleanliness, and care 
of contagious diseases are, furthermore, not available to the aver- 
age housewife, nor is the necessity for such knowledge brought to 
her mind during her regular school attendance. The attending 
physician through his directions offers the only scientific instruc- 
tions available to her and these are necessarily desultory and in- 
adequate. 

Hazards. — Since the majority of housewives in Richmond are 
unable to employ a graduate nurse in the event of sickness in the 
home and as eighty per cent, of the practical nurses refuse to take 
contagious diseases, the bulk of such work is done by the home 
nurse. The hazards in such work cannot be definitely stated, 
since no record is kept of infections. The nervous exhaustion 
following serious cases is often undoubtedly the cause of later 
nervous disorders. Undue strain upon the back, through un- 
skilled handling of the patient, is in many cases directly respon- 
sible for later weaknesses in the genital organs. 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 443 

General Conclusions 
For Meeting the Gap in the Training of Nurses 

It has been noted that there may be a gap of several years be- 
tween the completion of the high school course and the entrance 
to the nurse's training school. This points to the need for a pre- 
vocational course of college grade of about two years in duration. 
This need is called to the attention of the Board of Trustees of 
Earlham College. It seems unadvisable for the high school to 
offer post graduate courses in this field, and as Earlham College 
has shown herself anxious to assist in the solution of the problems 
of higher education, the Survey suggests that courses of study in 
nursing be hereafter included in the regular curriculum of the 
freshman and sophomore years of that institution. Such courses 
included in the regular curriculum of Earlham College would un- 
doubtedly appeal to other young women than those specifically 
interested in it in relation to later training for nursing, and would 
therefore assist in the solution of the problem of the education of 
the junior and home nurse. Upon the completion of this two 
years' course, those who desired to become nurses should enter 
the training school of the Reid Memorial Hospital. 

Public Control of Practical Nurses: A Problem for Further Study 

As a result of this study it is evident that the whole question 
of nursing is one of great public concern. The large class of men 
with families who are getting between twelve and fifteen dollars 
a week or even less, of which there are over one thousand in Rich- 
mond, can ill afford to hire a trained nurse and must necessarily 
select as inexpensive a nurse as possible. This ordinarily brings 
them one who is decidedly ignorant of either nursing or sanita^ 
tion, yet in these very instances there is even more need of knowl- 
edge on the part of the nurse than in families where there is 
already a better standard of living. Poor nutrition and poor sani- 
tary conditions make nursing more difficult in the poorer home. 
Nor would it seem as if sending the patient to the hospital could 
be a solution of the difficulty. This means paying the hospital 
at least seven dollars a week. Visiting nurses who could be paid 
small amounts for the visits necessary to accomplish the real nurs- 
ing, with a woman to run the house and act as attendant, might 
help, but the visiting nurse in these cases ought not to be consid- 
ered as charity. It should not be necessary for men of this class 
to be forced to depend upon charity. 

The question which looms large as a result of this study and 



444 Occupational Information [Part II 

which needs much further consideration, not as a local but as a 
universal problem for society, is public control of these nurses. 
The state has already assumed responsibility in regard to the 
trained nurse. But since the trained nurse is usually employed 
by a family with much more intelligence and means to investigate 
and judge the ability of the nurse, it seems evident that the other 
family is much more helpless in the proper selection of a practical 
nurse. 

If standards for such nurses could be fixed and enforced, it 
might be necessary to recognize more than one grade of practical 
nurse. While it would always be difficult to demand much of the 
lowest class nurse, at least a class between the trained nurse and 
the poorer grade nurse might thus be created, which would be 
composed of well qualified practical nurses. Perhaps the care of 
health may some day be made wholly a public matter and the 
poor will then not have to depend on chance or charity for either 
good doctoring or nursing. 

As an immediate measure, there should be some public con- 
trol in the standardization of the practical nurse. This would, 
perhaps, involve a scheme of registration similar to that of the 
trained nurse, indicating the proper standards required for these 
types of nurses. 

These problems are called to the attention of the State Board 
of Health for further study. 

Registration Bureau 

At present there seems to be no better place for registration for 
work than the drug stores. While this service is at present given 
by two stores without charge, it would seem as if they took great 
pains to make their services as efficient as possible. However, the 
list kept is very inaccurate, containing the names of nurses who 
have not been in the city for many years. One morning twelve 
calls were made at addresses selected from this list and only two 
of them proved to be houses at which there was a nurse living. 
Undoubtedly much of this difficulty is not the fault of the service 
at the drug stores but is due to the carelessness of nurses who do 
not withdraw their names from the list or correct their addresses 
when they move. The doctors report that it is impossible to 
depend on the list to know whether a nurse is on a case or waiting 
for work. One nurse who always kept the drug store informed 
on this point said that nevertheless she had constant calls when 
she was already on a case, probably because it was taken for 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 445 

granted that the record on this point would be incorrect. This 
confusion makes it very difficult to obtain a nurse in a hurry for 
an emergency and must greatly hamper nurses in obtaining calls. 
Perhaps some responsibility on the part of the nurses for this ser- 
vice would make them realize the necessity for greater accuracy 
in reporting. In some cities a central registration bureau is main- 
tained by the nurses themselves although this is usually a trained 
nurses' bureau. It would be impossible for the comparatively 
small number of nurses in Richmond to pay the full cost of such 
a bureau. 

Since this is really a matter of public interest, it might some 
time be possible for this service to be taken over by some city 
bureau. If such a bureau was organized to deal with general 
employment, this work might be included; but none of the present 
offices, such as the Social Service Bureau, are open long enough 
to perform this service, for there is probably as frequent, or more 
frequent a demand for nurses in the evening as at any other time. 
The requirements of a small registration fee might more effectively 
impress on the nurses the importance and the advantage of all 
concerned of keeping such list accurate. If the nurses had tele- 
phone service, all the problems of communication would be 
simplified. 

High School Courses 

It would seem as if work might be introduced into the high 
school along lines which would provide girls with the knowledge 
which is needed both by the practical nurse and the mother who 
must care for the physical welfare of herself and her family. Such 
work would also give the background needed by the trained 
nurse. A so-called nursing course would probably attract many 
girls. It might stimulate more to enter hospital training and also 
provide nurses with better educational qualifications. It would 
certainly help a girl who wished later to become a practical nurse 
and might even provide her with an immediate vocation. One 
doctor went as far as to say that this work should be required of 
every girl in high school; and another, that if such a course was 
introduced as the result of this Survey, it alone would be worth 
to the city the cost of making the whole Survey. 

Investigation shows that some of this work is already being 
taught in the high school. In the Domestic Science course we 
already find such subjects given as cooking, the composition and 
value of foods in the diet, balanced rations, hygiene, including 



446 Occupational Information [Part II 

simple work in anatomy and personal, home and public sanitation; 
bacteriology with some description of diseases and emergency 
measm-es. 

At present all these subjects are taught under the head of 
'^Cooking." The course for nurses would need to include simple 
laboratory work in bacteriology and a full course in the care and 
feeding of babies, as well as work in home nursing. Botany, but 
especially chemistry, both of which are already offered in the 
high school, should also be included in the course. With a mini- 
mum of change such a course might be run as shown below. A 
more descriptive naming of the course now called Cooking I, II, 
III and IV would be advantageous. 

First Year 

Cooking I and II 5 days a week. 

Two days a week are devoted to laboratory work in cooking. 

Two days a week are devoted to recitation and study. Such 
topics are considered as the classification, manufacture, com- 
position and value of foods in the diet, principles of cooking, the 
planning and serving of meals and cost of food. 

One day a week is given to hygiene. The bones, muscles and 
organs of the body are studied as well as respiration, digestion, 
circulation and the nervous system. Emphasis is laid on per- 
sonal, home and public sanitation. The aim is to establish ideals 
of cleanliness. 

Biology 5 days a week. 

Second Year 

Cooking III and IV 5 days a week. 

Two days a week are devoted to cooking. Besides continuing 
the work of the former class, especial attention is paid to the pre- 
servation of food. 

Two days a week are devoted to recitation and study. The 
recitation work includes dietetics and marketing. 

One day a week is given to the stud}^ of bacteria, yeast 
and molds. This should include laboratory work with micro- 
organisms. 

Chemistry 5 days a week. 

Third Year 

First half year. 

Course V. Home Management 5 days a week. 



Chap. XXII] The Nurse 447 

A study of the household budgets, division of the income, 
accounts, the organization of household work, care and cleaning. 
Laundry work. 

Second half year. 

Course VI. Care of Infants and Invalids 5 days a week. 

Care and feeding of babies. — Daily routing; regularity; need of 
sleep ; harmf ulness of excitement and overhandling. Pacifiers and 
thumb sucking. Fresh air; baby foods; care of milk and bottles. 
Intervals of feeding. Weaning and diet of the little child. Infant 
diseases and their care. 

Home nursing. — The sick room; its furnishing and care. 
Making a bed with a patient in it. Giving baths in bed; dressing 
the patient; giving alcohol rubs; packs and fomentations; differ- 
ent enemas and douches; taking temperature and pulse; bandag- 
ing; first aid measures. Keeping charts. Probable recognition 
of contagious diseases; checking the spread of infection and con- 
tagion; use of disinfectants and antiseptics. Home remedies; 
dangers in use of narcotics and patent medicines and in indis- 
criminate drugging. 

Practical nursing in special conditions; diets in different 
diseases. Hygiene and feeding of the expectant mother. Maternity 
nursing after birth of child. Tuberculosis and pneumonia; 
typhoid and children's diseases. 

Courses for Practical Nurses 

For the immediate amelioration of existing conditions among 
the practical nurses of the city the Survey suggests to the Board 
of Education the possibility of offering short unit courses in 
nursing to the practical nurses already in the field. Of the ten 
practical nurses interviewed six thought short unit courses given 
by the local physicians on different phases of nursing would be 
very beneficial. One practical nurse suggested that such courses 
be held during the summer and six suggested the early evening as 
the most convenient hours for them to attend. Two of the 
physicians thought a series of lectures on short unit courses on 
specific problems in nursing would be of great value to the prac- 
tical nurse; three, while thinking the idea good, doubted if the 
nurses would attend or benefit much by the courses. One physi- 
cian was opposed to the idea on the basis that the nurses were too 
independent in their work now. The Survey, in suggesting com- 
plementary continuation short unit courses in nursing had in 



448 Occupational Information [Part II 

mind not only the immediate accretion of special knowledge in 
scientific methods of nursing but also the attitude of open minded- 
ness and a knowledge of up-to-date literature of the profession. 
Only one of the practical nurses interviewed had any knowledge 
of current books on nursing and two of professional magazines. 
A series of six or eight lectures, demonstrations and discussions 
given by local physicians or graduate nurses on subjects of im- 
mediate value to the practical nurse could be given as a short 
unit course in the subject chosen. A rotating system of short 
unit courses by which several greatly needed courses of study 
could be repeated every second or third year in conjunction with 
new subjects of study, would lend stability as well as variety and 
breadth of subject for the work of each current year. 

Such courses in nursing should be open to all junior and home 
nurses of the city and the required amount of publicity given 
them to acquaint the disinterested housewife in the work. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

The General Survey Committee concurs with the suggestions 
and recommendations included under the study of the occupation 
of nursing in the city of Richmond. It calls the attention of the 
State Board of Health to the conditions existing in the occupation 
of practical nurse and to the suggestions made for legislation and 
further study in this field. 

The Committee recommends for the consideration of the Board 
of Trustees of Earlham College the inclusion of pre-vocational 
courses in nursing for the graduates of the secondary schools of 
the vicinity who wish later to enter Reid Memorial Hospital or 
other hospital training schools of the state. 

The attention of the Board of Education is called to the ignor- 
ance and incompetence of the practical, junior and home nurse 
and recommends the adoption of the suggested course of study in 
nursing in the regular courses of study of the Senior High School. 

It further suggests that steps be taken at once to arrange for 
a series of short unit complementary vocation courses in nursing 
to be open to all practical, junior and home nurses of the city. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT: HOUSEHOLD 

SERVICE 

Scope. — This study is concerned primarily with workers in 
private families. Type studies were made on institutional ser- 
vice in Earlham College, the State Insane Hospital and the Reid 
Memorial Hospital. Statistics were obtained in regard to workers 
in restaurants and hotels but not studied intensively. The study 
omits work done only by men, including janitor work, butchering, 
the work of the steward, the houseman in the private family and 
the chauffeur. 

It is impossible to estimate accurately the number of domestic 
servants employed in the homes of Richmond. The questionaires 
sent out through the school children show that there are sixty 
people employed in the families represented. Estimating that 
two-thirds of the Richmond families send children to school, there 
are ninety so employed in the city. Sixteen employers were vis- 
ited who employed nineteen people. Twenty-five employees were 
visited. 

There are many women who work by the day as washerwomen 
and charwomen. The questionaires show 220 so employed, 162 
as laundresses and 58 as sweepers and cleaners. Estimating as 
above, there are then 330 women so employed in Richmond. It 
is possible that this estimate is too high from the fact that one 
day worker usually works in from one to five families in one week. 

Table 22 shows the number employed in all forms of house- 
hold service in and around Richmond. 

Race and nationality. — Fourteen of the twenty-four maids 
reporting who are employed in private families were colored; only 
one was of foreign birth. Most of them come from small towns in 
Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. Five were born in Richmond. A 
large proportion of the day workers are colored. 

Age, social status and previous employment. — Ten of the domestics 
reporting were single and sixteen were married. The unmarried 
domestics range in age from eighteen to forty. Only six of 
those reporting were under twenty; six more were between twenty 
and thirty, and eight were thirty or over. Most of them failed 

(449) 
29—5463 



450 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 





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Chap. XXIII] Household Service 451 

to specify what previous work they had done. Among the types 
of work mentioned was serving, house cleaning, nursing, factory 
work and teaching. 

Facts Common to All Workers 

Mental, physical and personal characteristics. — Domestic work- 
ers should have executive ability to plan the work efficiently and 
to ''use the head to save the heels." This was particularly em- 
phasized by the employers for institutions. The maid should 
also have the ability to keep several things going at once. She 
should have a good memory in order to know at once where things 
are kept. A pleasant disposition and ability to work with other 
people is desirable because the maid does much work with or 
directly under the supervision of her employer. Ten housewives 
required honesty; eight specified good health; four specified 
cleanliness and neatness; five specified interest in work and 
willingness to work overtime. Other more vague requirements 
were judgment, mentality, sense, ''nice with children," trust- 
worthiness, orderliness, good nature and conscientiousness. Neces- 
sity for strength was emphasized for the women engaged in day 
work. 

General education required. — Housewives and institutional man- 
agers were unanimous in stating that full time employees need an 
elementary education to enable them to use cookbooks, telephone 
books, read notes, write orders for the milkman, sign for pack- 
ages, make change and check up bills. Half a dozen housewives 
indicated that a high school education would be desirable. Sub- 
ordinate workers in institutions could probably do the work with- 
out a knowledge of reading and writing. 

Housewives employing day workers agree that elementary 
education is not required but is desirable. One specified that 
ability to speak English was necessary. Two or three stated that 
their present workers could not read or write but did the work 
satisfactorily. 

It seems evident that the maids meet the educational require- 
ments. Eleven were eighth grade graduates; six had had some 
high school work and only four had less than eighth grade educa- 
tion. Of the eleven day workers reporting only four had been in 
the eighth grade; five had no education beyond the fourth grade; 
and eight left school at fourteen years of age or under. 

Promotion. — Workers in homes have practically no chance for 



452 Occupational Information [Part II 

promotion. Eighteen reported definitely no wage increase on 
the job and no possibility for promotion. The housewives 
frankly stated that they could not afford to pay any more, no 
matter how efficient a girl was and her only chance for advance- 
ment was to get another job. One stated ^^girls know what cer- 
tain families pay regardless of their experience." Five stated 
that they had raised wages on the basis of increased efficiency and 
the length of service. One had increased the wage twice in three 
years. One had given added responsibilities with increased wage. 

There seems to be a considerable shifting particularly among 
the younger workers. One who left school at fifteen was holding 
her fifth job at eighteen. One twenty-one years old had held 
five positions at housework and one at factory work. The time 
on the job varied from one week to nine years. Eleven, or more 
than half of those reporting, had been on the job less than six 
months; six had been on the job less than five years; and four 
more than five years. 

The possibility for promotion is less for day workers. Only 
two housewives thought an increase would be possible. One 
''would be willing to pay more than $1.50 per day if the worker 
could turn out more work and do it better." Another states that 
''if present helper could beat rugs she would be paid more than 
11.50 per day." 

In institutions there is a possibility of promotion for the sub- 
ordinate workers. Kitchen maids may work up to the position 
of cooks; waitresses may become head waitresses or cooks; maids 
may become cooks but they have less opportunity to learn on the 
job than the other workers mentioned. Cooks may become first 
cooks and from that they may be promoted to housekeepers. 

Promotion depends on efficiency, length of service and general 
intelligence. 

Source and selection of workers. — The great majority of workers 
are secured through recommendations. The number of advertise- 
ments in the local papers seem to indicate that many are obtained 
in this way. Housewives complain that their servants stay only 
long enough to gain a little experience and then get work in insti- 
tutions. The employers for the institutions do not bear out this 
statement. Institutions select most of their employees from 
applicants. They may require recommendations. 

Seasonahleness and hours of labor. — The only kind of domestic 
service which shows marked seasonal variation is that of the dsiy 



Chap. XXIII] Household Service 453 

worker. The busy time comes in the spring and fall when extra 
help for house cleaning is in demand. 

In private families the working hours are irregular and time 
off is not always definitely fixed. About one-half of all the per- 
sons interviewed made statements in regard to hours of labor. 
Working hours varied from seven to thirteen a day. The work- 
ing day begins somewhere between six and eight o'clock in the 
morning and is not over until after the evening meal. There 
were seven maids working eight hours or less, there were ten 
working eleven or twelve hours a day and two working thirteen 
hours a day. There seems to be no connection between wages 
and hours of labor, for, of those working from eleven to twelve 
hours a day, wages ranged from two to seven dollars a week. 
Day workers in private families work eight or ten hours a day 
and if hours are shorter, payment is by the hour. 

In institutions work begins at six or seven in the morning 
and lasts until at least seven o'clock in the evening. The actual 
working time is from eight to ten hours a day. There are two 
hours free in the afternoon and a regular half day off a week. 
Sunday afternoon may be free every week, every two weeks, or 
every month. 

With the maid in the private family time off is not so definitely 
arranged. Fifteen stated that the maid was free on Sunday after- 
noon and ten had some regular afternoon or evening off during 
the week. There may be some time off in the afternoon. One 
employer states "during the week it depends on the work, but the 
maid has some time off every afternoon. Her evenings are free 
except when we need her to take care of the boy." Another 
states: ''There is the set time off, generally one night during the 
week;" another, ''overtime work is demanded when there is com- 
pany or when house cleaning is going on. There is no regular 
arrangement for a half day off but I let the girl off whenever she 
wants to go if I can do so without inconvenience to myself." 

Living conditions and social opportunities. — The question of 
living conditions and social opportunities applies only to the 
fifteen per cent, of the domestics who live in the place in which 
they work. Six employers stated that the maids may entertain 
in the house, but in only one case is there any place to do so other 
than the kitchen. One stated that the maid "does not often go 
out. I do not want her running around nights." Of the employ- 
ees interviewed, one stated she could entertain company where 



454 Occupational Information [Part II 

she worked. Several mentioned only the social life outside, such 
as church activities. In one instance the maid is really treated 
as a member of the family. In seven cases the maid eats with 
the family when there are no guests. Where more than one 
worker is employed they furnish company for each other. 

Workers in institutions are numerous enough so that some 
social life is possible. In the three large institutions visited there 
is a place for the employees to entertain company and meet each 
other socially. 

Wages. — Wages for domestic service include board and room 
and sometimes laundry. Board and room probably amount to 
$2.50 a week estimated on a cash basis. The day workers usually 
receive the noon meal on the day they work. 

Of the 34 maids reporting: 

7 receive $3.00 per week or under 

1 receive $3.50 per week 
6 receive $4.00 per week 

. 4 receive $4.25 or $4.50 per week 
11 receive $5.00 per week 
3 receive $6.00 per week 

2 receive $7.00 per week 

Eighteen of the thirty-four maids reporting received less than 
five dollars per week, eleven received five dollars, and five received 
more than five dollars per week. 

Cooks in private families earn from seven to eight dollars a 
week. In institutions the opportunities are greater. Men earn 
from seven to twelve dollars a week and head cooks may earn 
fifteen dollars a week. 

Wages in institutions are estimated'on a monthly basis. Maids 
and waitresses earn from fourteen to sixteen dollars a month. 
One maid receives twenty-five dollars a month. Head waitresses 
earn from twenty to twenty-two dollars a month. Housekeepers 
in institutions earn about thirty-five dollars a month. 

Day workers are paid either by the hour or by the day. Of 
the twenty-four reporting eleven receive $1.50 per day; thirteen 
receive less than $1.50 per day and five receive less than $1.00 
per day. Wages per week cannot be estimated on a daily basis 
because the day workers are also housewives and work only part 
of the week. Definite reports could be obtained from only ten 
workers. Of these, one worked only one day a month; five 



Chap. XXIII] Household Service 455 

worked two daj^s a week or less; three worked four days a week; 
and two worked five or six days a week. This being the case, 
wages vary from fifty cents a week to $7.50 a week. 

Summarized wages for the workers on a weekly basis are as 
follows : 

Maids in private families vary from $2.00 to $7.00; largest 
group receives $5.00. 

Maids and waitresses in institutions vary from $3.50 to $5.50; 
largest group receives $4.00. 

Cooks vary from $7.00 to $15.00; largest group receives $8.00. 

Day workers vary from $.50 to $7.50; largest group receives 
$5.00 or over. 

The largest group of housekeepers receives $8.50. 

The Maid in Private Family 

What the worker does. — The general housemaid works under 
the direction of her employer. .Seven employers stated that they 
supervised everything. Most employers plan meals and indi- 
cate what recipes are to be used in the preparation of food, and 
do most of the buying. Only three housewives stated that they 
did not closely supervise the housework. The work itself con- 
sists of washing and ironing, sweeping, dusting, cleaning, washing 
dishes, cooking, serving, baking and helping in the care of children. 
Where a cook is also employed the maid does none of the cooking. 
She takes care of the front part of the house, sweeping, cleaning, 
making beds, etc., serves the meals, answers the doorbell and the 
telephone and helps in the kitchen when the cook is unusually 
busy. She may also assist with the mending and plain sewing. 

Labor saving devices are in common use in the types of homes 
in which servants are employed. Nine mentioned the use of 
electric irons, five mentioned washing machines and eight vacuum 
cleaners. A very few homes have specially equipped laundries. 
Families in which the work is done vary in size from two to five 
persons. Eleven of the sixteen reporting have children in the 
family under eighteen. Only three of the families visited em- 
ployed more than one full time worker; one or two more employed 
a day worker to do the washing and to help with the spring house 
cleaning. 

Special knowledge required. — Since so many maids work en- 
tirely under supervision, special knowledge needed for beginning 
is sHght. Five employers stated that no special knowledge was 



456 Occupational Information [Part II 

required. This is more likely to be the case in the less well-to-do 
families with children. Five specified the need for a knowledge of 
household management and cleaning; six for care of children; five 
specified dietetics; one planning meals; three serving; two speci- 
fied mechanical devices used in the household; and two marketing. 
In a few instances a knowledge of sewing is needed. For maxi- 
mum efficiency the maid needs the knowledge of the housewife 
in marketing, keeping the house clean, laundry work, preparing 
and serving meals, caring for children and in so planning the 
household work that no time is lost in doing each kind of work 
or in going from one kind to another. 

Special skill required.- — The skill required in cleaning, consists of 
using a vacuum cleaner, handling a broom, handling a mop, get- 
ting into all the corners, etc. Skill required in cooking consists 
of mixing the ingredients properly, and knowing how to get the 
best results from the cook stove. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained on the job. The housewife shows 
an inexperienced worker how to do the work and helps her do it. 
Girls learn in two or three months but it takes longer to become 
really efficient. One employer stated that it took her maid two 
years to learn how to run the cook stove. Another stated that 
it was some time before her maid became accustomed to using 
the vacuum cleaner and still longer to learn to iron. An exper- 
ienced worker learns the routine in a day or two but it may take 
a month to learn all the ways of the different households. 

The Cook in Private Family 

What the worker does. — The cook in- a private family does the 
laundry work, keeps the back part of the house clean, and does 
the baking as well as the cooking. There is usually a laundry 
fitted with stationary tubs, washing machines, and in one 
instance, a mangle. The employer supervises the work and 
usually plans the meals. 

In institutions the work is supervised by the housekeeper and 
the meals are planned by her. The work may be further subdi- 
vided into baking and cooking, and less experienced workers are 
employed as assistant cooks. These assistants work under the 
direction of the head cook and help in preparing food for cooking 
and serving in the kitchen. 



Chap. XXIII] Household Service 457 

Special knowledge required. — The cooks should know the 
recipes they use and how the different ingredients should be 
mixed. This worker should know something of dietetics and 
chemistry of foods. 

Special skill required. — The skill required consists in mixing 
ingredients, baking cake, kneading bread, etc. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special skill and 
knowledge can be obtained by previous experience as maid, 
waitress or housewife, by instructions from employer, by using 
cookbooks and by experience on the job. 

Housemaid in an Institution 

TVhat the worker does. — The housemaid in an institution cleans, 



sweeps, makes beds, changes linen and does the general picking 
up and keeping things in order. 

Special knowledge required. — The housemaid should know how 
to clean, sweep, make beds and how to plan her work efficiently. 

Special skill required. — The special skill required consists in 
doing the work quickly and neatly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill may be obtained on the job by experience. 

Kitchen Maid in Institution 

What the worker does. — This worker washes dishes, cleans 
vegetables, helps clean the kitchen and serve in the employees' 
dining room. 

Special knowledge required. — The kitchen maid should know 
how to perform the details of her work and how to plan the work 
efficiently. 

Special skill required. — The skill required consists in doing the 
work thoroughly and quickly. 

How special knowledge and skill are obtained. — Special knowl- 
edge and skill can be obtained on the job in a few weeks. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

Among the factors which make it difficult for the Survey Com- 
mittee to recommend at present vocational courses for young 
women wishing to prepare for household and institutional ser- 
vice are: Lack of standards regarding the work to be done and 



458 Occupational Information [Part II 

the knowledge and skill required; the low wage; the long hours; 
the inadequate provisions for social life; and the lack of oppor- 
tunity for promotion and increased wages with increased efficiency. 

During the course of the Survey, conferences with employers 
and employed were held with a view of reaching a working agree- 
ment about these contributory problems. As yet no workable 
agreement has been reached. 

The Survey Committee earnestly calls the attention of employ- 
ing w^omen and employed women to this report, with the hope 
that these problems may be squarely met and solved. When 
employers and employed reach just decisions regarding standard- 
ization of work, wages and hours of labor, and the training re- 
quired of workers for entrance, efficiency and promotion, the 
Richmond schools should offer the necessary day courses for those 
who wish to enter w^ork, and continuation courses for those al- 
ready in the work. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT 

State wardship over youths. — The problems growing out of 
juvenile employment have for years attracted nation-wide con- 
sideration. States have drafted compulsory education laws and 
regulatory measures regarding street trades and factory employ- 
ment. At present public attention is focused upon various 
plans for bringing back to the school for further education, for a 
part of the day or week, the boys and girls who have left the school 
system and entered productive wage-earning occupations. The 
tendency of the times is for the state to continue its wardship 
over its boys and girls under seventeen years of age, whether they 
are in school or at work. 

Sources of information. — Three sources of information were 
available for the study of juvenile employment in Richmond: 
Records of working permits issued to boys and girls from Septem- 
ber 1, 1915, to May 1, 1916; reports made out by all Richmond 
employers indicating the number of youths under seventeen years 
of age on the payroll March 1, 1916; and the school census enum- 
eration taken between April 10 and April 30. In this chapter the 
data from the first two sources are reported and the data from 
the third source is contained in Chapter XXV, "Home and School 
Gardening." 

Number of permits issued. — From the first of September, 1915, 
to May 1, 1916. working permits were issued to 79 boys and 69 
girls. For thirteen of the boys and five of the girls two permits 
were issued during this period of time, and for three boys three 
permits were issued. To all others one permit was issued. 
Three of the boys to whom permits were issued were colored. 

Place of children's birth. — The boys and girls to whom permits 
were issued were born in the following places: 

Boys Girls 

Richmond, Indiana 30 27 

Indiana, other than Richmond 25 23 

United States, other than Indiana 23 15 

Foreign country 1 2 

The per cent, of foreign born is almost negligible; this being so, 
Richmond is confronted with the serious problem of such a large 

f459) 



460 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



number of native born boys and girls going to work at an early 
age. 

Schools last attended. — It will be noted from the tabular state- 
ment that the large majority of the permit boys and girls last 
attended the public schools of Richmond: 

Boys Girls 

Richmond public schools 65 48 

Richmond parochial schools 6 14 

Public schools elsewhere 8 5 

Many of these children reported as last attending the public schools 
attended the parochial schools for a number of years and were 
transferred to the public schools a year or two before the permit 
was issued. 

Age upon leaving school and grade completed. — As might be 
expected, the majority of the boys and girls who received permits 
left school as soon as the law allowed; however, ten boys and 
nineteen girls left school at thirteen years of age, this being one 
year before the legal age limit. In these cases the records show 
that the permits were not issued u^til children were fourteen 
years old, meaning a possible period of idleness of one year. 
Twenty-two boys and eight girls continued in school one year 
beyond the fourteen year age limit of compulsory school attend- 
ance. 

TABLE 23 

Number of Working Permit Boys and Girls Leaving at 

Each Age and School Grade 



SCHOOL GRADE 
COMPLETED 



Boys 



Age Upon Leaving School 



13 



Girls 



14 



Boys 



Girls 



15 



Boys 



Girls 



16 



Boys 



Girls 



Boys 



Totals 



Girls 



Grade unknown 

5A grade 

6B grade 

6A grade 

7B grade 

7A grade 

8B grade 

8A grade 

1st high 

2nd high 



4 


3 


6 


5 


14 


7 


10 


9 


12 


10 


6 


10 


8 


11 


10 


8 


7 


3 


2 


1 



Total . 



10 



19 



47 



40 



21 



79 



67 



Chap. XXIV] 



Juvenile Employment 



461 



Concerning the grade completed before leaving school, almost 
one-half of the boys and one-half of the girls left before entering 
the seventh grade. This presents a very serious problem as 
youthful workers with hmited education, stand but a slight chance 
for success in the modern competitive order. Table 23 records 
facts of age upon leaving school and school grade completed. 

Why did they leave school? — It is of the utmost importance to 
determine why the permit boys and girls left school to go to work. 
The records of the attendance office are very complete and specific 
upon this point. From the tabular statement here made it is 
seen that the majority of the boys and girls had to go to work on 
account of economic necessity. 

Boys Girls 

Father deceased 3 

Economic necessity 42 31 

Wanted to work 19 15 

Did not like school 8 5 

Other reasons 7 16 

- The other reasons specified for going to work are the follow- 
ing: "Going to Business College later," ''can't keep up with 
studies," ''to help father," "to help mother," and "personal sick- 
ness." The fact that such a large number of boys and girls had 
to go to work on account of economic necessity is a further proof 
of the extremely low wages paid to workingmen in Richmond. 



TABLE 24 

Occupations of Fathers and Mothers of Permit Boys 

AND Girls 



OCCUPATIONS 


Permit Boys 


Permit Girls 


Total 




Fathers 


Mothers 


Fathers 


Mothers 


Fathers 


Mothers 


Deceased 

Laborers 

Skilled mechanics 

Miscellaneous occupations 
Washerwomen 


10 
27 
21 
13 


3 

1 

6 

63 

4 


7 
26 
12 

9 

13 


2 

5 

6 

50 

1 


17 
53 
33 
22 

21 


5 

6 
12 


At home 




113 


Unknown 


8 


5 


Total 


79 


77 


67 


64 


146 


141 



462 Occupational Infoemation [Part II 

Occupations of fathers and mothers. — Table 24 shows occupa- 
tions of fathers and mothers of permit boys and girls. It is sur- 
prising to note that the fathers of twenty-one boys and twelve 
girls are skilled mechanics, presumably not earning enough to 
support the family without the aid of the children. 

Occupational distributions of permit hoys and girls. — Occupa- 
tions of the boys and girls are divided among four types of em- 
ployment : Factory work in manufacturing establishments, store 
employment, office employment and personal service. Youthful 
workers in Richmond are divided among these types of employ- 
ment as follows: 

Boys Girls 

Factory employment 39 63 

Store employment 23 4 

Office employment 14 

Personal service 3 

Factory employment of hoys and girls. — The majority of the boys 
and girls in factory occupations are employed in the glove in- 
dustry. Specific lines of employment of all boys and girls are 
listed below: 

Glove Making Occupations 



Clippers 


Boys 
11 


Girls 
2 


TId cutters 


5 





Turners 


9 


24 


Cutters 


2 





Bundlers 


1 





Formers 


4 


17 


Sewers 





3 


Inspectors 





11 


Boxers 





11 


Miscellaneous Factory 

Helner cabinet factorv 


Occupations 

Boys 
1 


Girls 


Casket trimmer 


2 




Core maker 


1 




Foundry helper 


1 




Florist assistants 


4 




Helper, newspaper 


1 





Chap. XXIV] Juvenile Employment 463 

Miscellaneous Factory Occupations—Continued 

Boys Girls 

Offbearer, wood machine 1 

Underwear packer 1 

Underwear repairer 1 

Collar pad trimmer 1 

Dishwasher 1 

Wages in factory employment for boys and girls. — The average 
wage for both boys and girls in factory employment is $4.30 per 
week, derived from thirty-one boys reporting wages and thirty- 
one girls reporting wages. Weekly wages derived from statements 
of boys and girls in specific occupations are as follows: 

Boys Girls 

Clipper $3.00 $3.00 

Tip cutter $5.00 

Cutter $3.50 

Bundler $4.00 

Former $4.00 to $7.00 $2.50 to $4.75 

Turner $3.00 to $7.00 

Inspector $3.00 to $7.00 

Casket trimmer $4.00 to $6.00 

Offbearer $6.00 

Florist's helper $4.00 to $5.00 

Core maker $9.00 

Store employment and wages of hoys and girls. — The majority 
of the boys in the store employment are either errand or 
delivery boys, and three of the four girls are millinery apprentices. 

Boys Girls 

Errand and delivery 15 

Clerks (salespersons) 5 1 

General store work 3 

Milliner apprentice 3 

Wages in store employment: Boys and girls. — The average 
weekly wage in store employment for boys is $3.42 derived from 
nineteen wage reports, and the average wage for girls derived from 
two wage reports is $2.50. 

Errand and delivery $2.25 to $3.00 

Clerks (salespersons) $3.00 to $6.00 

Milliner apprentices $1.00 

Office employment of boys. — All the boys in office employment 



464 Occupational Information [Part II 

are telegraph messengers, and on the basis of eleven reporting 
wages, the average weekly wage is five dollars. 

Personal service of hoys, — The three permit boys in personal 
service pursuits are porters; two in hotels and one in a barber 
shop. The average weekly wage is three and one-half dollars. 

Boys and Girls Under Seventeen Years of Age on Pay 
Rolls, March 1. 1916. 

The data here reported, is in part a duplication of facts re- 
ported under the previous section of the Chapter, ^'Working Per- 
mit Boys and Girls." These detailed facts are recorded in this 
section partly as a check upon the reliability of the working per- 
mit data. 

Number employed. — According to the returns from all employ- 
ers in Richmond, there were sixty boys and fifty-two girls under 
seventeen years of age employed for wages in the factories, stores 
and offices on March 1, 1916. As working permits were issued 
to seventy-nine boys and sixty-nine girls, all of whom were under 
sixteen years of age, the reports from employers of labor would 
seem to indicate that a number of the permit boys and girls must 
be idle, or have left the city since the issuance of the permit. 

Occupations of hoys and girls under seventeen. — The youthful 
employees may be grouped under four general heads: 

Boys Girls 

Factory employment 30 48 

Store employment 21 4 

Office employment 8 

Personal service 1 

Factory work of hoys and girls. — The boys and girls were en- 
gaged in the following lines of factory employment: 

Boys Girls 

Glove turners 8 14 

Glove formers 4 10 

Bread wrappers 5 

Helpers, casket factory 4 

Glove tip cutters 4 

Glove chppers 2 

Greenhouse helper 1 

Harness helper 1 



Chap. XXIV] Juvenile Employment 465 

Boys Girls 

Glove cutter 1 

Glove and shirt sewers 9 

Glove inspectors 5 

Bread packers 4 

Cake icers 3 

Glove boxers 2 

Bakery helpers 1 

Store work of hoys and girls. — The boys and girls were engaged 
in the following lines of store employment: 

Boys Girls 

Delivery and general store work 15 

Bakery and grocery sales 6 1 

Millinery ' 3 

Office work of boys. — The eight boys were engaged in telegraph 
messenger service. 

Personal service of hoys. — The one boy reported in personal 
service was a restaurant waiter. 

Possible Part-Time Complementary Education 

For factory workers. — After a careful analysis of all the various 
factory occupations in which thirty-nine boys and sixty-three 
girls are reported as engaged, it is concluded that education com- 
plementary to employment could be provided for: 

Florist's assistant 1 Boy 

Foundry helper 1 Boy 

This means that no complementary part-time education is 
necessary for the thirty-seven boys and sixty-three girls^the major- 
ity of whom are employed in some glove making occupation. 

For store workers. — Part-time complementary education could 
be provided for part of the twenty-three boys and four girls in 
store employment as follows: 

Millinery apprentices 4 Girls 

Salespersons 5 Boys and 1 Girl 

For office employees. — For the eleven boys in messenger ser- 
vice no complementary part-time education is necessary. All the 
boys thoroughly know the streets of the city and all necessary 
facts regarding procedure of delivering messages. 

30 — 5463 



466 Occupational Information [Part II 

For personal service employees. — No part-time complementary 
education is needed for the three boys employed as porters. 

For all Richmond youths — summarized. — Part-time education 
on a complementary basis could be provided for: 

7 of the 79 boys to whom permits were issued 
6 of the 69 girls to whom permits were issued 

The point is not proved, however, that for these thirteen 
children, complementary education on a part-time basis would be 
of more profit than education along some line other than that re- 
lated to the lines in which they are now engaged. 

Comparisons between Richmond and Hammond. — The study of 
juvenile employment was made in Hammond one year ago along 
practically the same lines as this part of the Richmond Survey. 
A comparison of the permit groups in the two cities for the same 
gross period of time, although of different years, is as follows: 

79 boys and 69 girls received permits in Richmond 
67 boys and 89 girls received permits in Hammond 

Part-time education on a complementary basis could be pro- 
vided for the children of the two cities as follows: 

7 boys and 6 girls in Richmond 
19 boys and 31 girls in Hammond 

In view of these studies in Richmond and Harnmond, the 
limitations of the Indiana part-time law are obvious. 

Indiana Part-Time Education Laws 

Part-time class defined. — ^'Part-time classes in industrial, agri- 
cultural or domestic science school or department, shall mean a 
vocational class for persons giving a part of their working time to 
profitable employment and receiving in the part-time school 

OR DEPARTMENT, INSTRUCTION COMPLEMENTARY TO THE PRAC- 
TICAL WORK CARRIED ON IN SUCH EMPLOYMENT. TO GIVE A 
PART OF THEIR WORKING TIME, SUCH PERSONS MUST GIVE A 
PART OF EACH DAY, WEEK OR LONGER PERIOD TO SUCH PART" 
TIME CLASS DURING THE PERIOD IN WHICH IT IS IN SESSION." 

Who may attend part-time class. — ''That the arts may go on 
together, vocational schools and departments for industrial, agri- 
cultural and domestic science education may offer instruction in 
day, part-time and evening classes. Such instruction shall be of 



Chap. XXIV] Juvenile Employment 467 

less than college grade and be designed to meet the vocational 
needs of persons over fourteen years of age who are able to profit 
by the instruction offered, attendance upon such day or 

PART-TIME CLASSES SHALL BE RESTRICTED TO PERSONS OVER 
FOURTEEN AND UNDER TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF AGE; aud UpOn 

such evening classes to persons over seventeen years of age." 

Provisions for attendance. — "in case the board of educa- 
tion OR township trustee of any city, town or town- 
ship HAVE established APPROVED VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS FOR 
THE INSTRUCTION OF YOUTHS OVER FOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE 
WHO ARE ENGAGED IN REGULAR EMPLOYMENT, IN PART-TIME 
CLASSES, AND HAD FORMERLY ACCEPTED THE PROVISIONS OF THIS 
SECTION, SUCH BOARD OF TRUSTEES ARE AUTHORIZED TO 
REQUIRE ALL YOUTHS BETWEEN THE AGES OF FOURTEEN AND 
SIXTEEN YEARS WHO ARE REGULARLY EMPLOYED, TO ATTEND 
SCHOOL NOT LESS THAN FIVE HOURS PER WEEK BETWEEN THE 
HOURS OF 8 A. M. AND 5 P. M. DURING THE SCHOOL TERM." 

Legal Provisions Regarding School Attendance and 
Juvenile Employment 

Compulsory school attendance. — All children of the age of seven 
and not more than fourteen are required to regularly attend a 
public, private, or parochial day school during each school year 
for a term not shorter than that of the common school corpora- 
tion in which the child resides. Exceptions are made for those 
physically and mentally disqualified. Compulsory attendance is 
also required of every child of fourteen or more and not more than 
sixteen years of age who is not regularly employed during the 
hours of the common school day. 

Issuance of working permits. — Working permits may be issued 
to boys and girls who have attained the age of fourteen years, who 
have procured a certificate from the executive officer of the com- 
mon school corporation, stating age, date and place of birth, also 
showing that the child has completed the fifth year grade of the 
common schools or its equivalent, and has also a written and 
signed statement from the child's prospective employer showing 
the place and character of the proposed employment. The em- 
ployer must keep the working certificate on file, and shall im- 
mediately, when his employment of the child ceases, notify the 
school corporation in writing. It is unlawful for an employer to 
re-employ the child without a new certificate. 



468 Occupational Information [Part II 

Restrictions relative to employment. — No child under the age 
of fourteen is permitted to work in any gainful occupation other 
than farm work or domestic service, except that any child be- 
tween the ages of twelve and fourteen may be employed in pre- 
serving and canning fruits and vegetables from June 1st to 
October 1st of each year. 

No child under sixteen shall be permitted to work in any gain- 
ful occupation, other than farm work or domestic service, more 
than forty-eight hours in one week, or more than eight hours in 
any one day unless written consent of the parent is procured; but 
in no event shall any child work at a gainful occupation other than 
farm or domestic service more than fifty-four hours in one week 
or nine hours in one day. 

No child under sixteen years of age shall be permitted to work 
where tobacco is manufactured or prepared, or in a hotel, theatre, 
or place where morals may be depraved. No boys under eighteen 
years of age shall be permitted to work where liquors are prepared 
or sold, or in match factories, or in manufacturing explosives, or, 
in the case of girls under eighteen years of age, where employ- 
ment compels constant standing. 

No child under sixteen years of age shall be employed to oper- 
ate circular or band saws, wood shapers, wood jointers, planers, 
stamping machines, steam boilers, dough brakes or cracker ma- 
chinery, wire or iron straightening machinery, rolling mill ma- 
chinery, punch or shears, grinding or mixing mills, calender rolls 
in rubber manufacturing, or laundry machinery, or corrugated rolls 
used in roofing or washboard manufacturing. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

That the sections of the Indiana Vocational Law concerning 
part-time education be amended so: 

1. That the establishment of part-time classes be mandatory 
upon all Boards of Education of cities and towns of 5,000 popu- 
lation and over. 

2. That attendance of all boys and girls under eighteen years 
of age, who have left school and entered any type of profitable 
employment, be required for at least five hours each week during 
the regular school year. 

3. That in addition to the provisions for part-time education 
complementary to daily employment, part-time education be also 
provided through continuation schools for all youthful workers 



Chap. XXIV] Juvenile Employment 469 

who are at work in juvenile employment regardless of whether it 
is complementary to the daily employment. 

That the laws relative to child labor and the issuance of work- 
ing permits be amended so: 

1. That working permits are required for all types of employ- 
ment for all youths under sixteen years of age, including those 
engaged in farm work, any form of domestic or personal service, 
or any other employment. 



CHAPTER XXV 



HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING 

(This study was made by Mr. J. L. Randall, Specialist in School or 
Home Gardening of the United States Bureau of Education, through the 
courtesy of Dr. P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education.) 

Aim and scope. — The aim of this study is to collect facts and 
figures on the cost of vegetable foods to city families, the possi- 
bilities of raising much of this food in the city and the educational 
value of garden training to the people, especially the children, of 
the city of Richmond. From these statistics it is hoped to draw 
conclusions and to make recommendations for gardening as one 
unit in a complete plan for vocational education in the city. 

Wayne County and Richmond 

County and city. — As the marketing, shipping and industrial 
center of an agricultural county, the economic relations of city 
and county are closely interwoven. This is shown from the 
Transportation Map in Chapter II. According to the 1910 
census between ninety and ninety-five per cent, of the land area 
of Wayne County is in farms. The average value of this land is 
from fifty to seventy-five dollars per acre (this value has increased 
very rapidly in the last five years). The State of Indiana is 
divided into seven divisions, according to land values, and Wayne 
County is placed in the fourth division. In comparison with the 
other ninety-one counties, Wayne stands thirty-fourth in the value 
of farm property, twelfth in population, twenty-fourth in the pro- 
duction of potatoes and forty-fourth in the production of other 
vegetables. A comparison of amounts and values of the agri- 
cultural products of the county demonstrates that the majority 
of the farmers are engaged in general farming. Near the city 
there are a few specialized farms growing vegetables and berries 
for the city market, but the small number prevents over-supply 
and consequent low prices even in the periods of marketing short 
season crops. 

The City of Richmond 

Growth of the city. — The growth of the city has been gradual. 
At no one time does there seem to have been a rapid increase in 
population with consequent high lot values. In topography the 

(4711 



472 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



land both in and near the corporate hmits of the city is level, 
which, with low values per front foot, has reacted in the laying out 
of comparatively large building lots. The size of the lots ranges 
from 40 by 160 feet to 70 by 165 feet, and many home grounds are 
much larger. Lots completely covered or nearly covered by 
buildings are only to be found where the back part of corner lots 
have been sold for the building of houses facing on cross streets. 
A large part of the families live in single houses. The 1910 census 
shows that there were 5,533 dwellings for the accommodation of 
5,874 families, or only 341 cases of families living in apartment 




A Row of Substantial Residences Which Perennials Would Beautify. 



houses or with other families. In the last five years the number 
of families has increased to 6,607; and from the number of build- 
ing permits issued, dwellings seem to have increased at about the 
same rate as has the number of families, but a larger precentage 
of flats has been erected. The figures on dwellings and families 
correspond very well with the estimated growth in population of 
between two and three thousand over 22,324, as given in the 1910 
census. 

Architectural styles. — The architecture of the homes is, in the 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 



473 



main, very plain. With the exception of two small sections, 
straight line building has been the rule. In the older and better 
parts of the city this has resulted in rather substantial-looking 
homes, placed on an average of thirty-five feet from the curb, 
thus leaving a good space for lawns, which in most cases, are well 
kept. Many shade trees have been planted, but little attention 
has been given to breaking the box-like lines of the older square 
house without a porch or the more modern house by the planting of 
vines and shrubbery. In several sections of the city well land- 
scaped homes are to be found and the additional attractiveness 
of the streets is well illustrated. 




Residences are Made More Attractive by Proper Landscape 
Gardening. 

Production and distribution of garden products. — In any con- 
sideration of the economic value which the home garden may have 
to city families, the place of production, methods of purchase and 
cost of vegetables and small fruits must be studied. Question 
blanks were filled out by eleven grocers and fifty-eight house- 
wives. The grocers' reports are summarized as follows: Sixty- 
five per cent, of the fresh vegetables sold through their stores 
during the year are secured from farmers, and thirty-five per cent. 



474 Occupational Information [Part II 

through commission houses. In the total sale of vegetables to 
the people of the city the grocers sell from seventy to seventy-five 
per cent.; the farmers' market twenty to twenty-five per cent.; and 
the hucksters five to ten per cent. The cost of fresh and canned 
vegetables to a family of five persons is estimated by the store- 
keepers at between twenty-five and forty cents per day, or a total 
cost of from $91.25 to $146.00 per year. The grocers were unan- 
imous in stating that the consumption of canned vegetables had 
increased very rapidly during the last few years, and, on the aver- 
age, estimated that from forty to fifty per cent, of all vegetable 
foods used in the city are now purchased in cans. One store pro- 
prietor illustrated this increase by stating that seven years ago 
a saleswoman for a prominent brand of canned goods spent two 
weeks in selling between two and three hundred dollars' worth to 
housewives, whereas, in the same length of time this year, she 
disposed of between three and four thousand dollars' worth. 

Forty-seven housewives reported that sixty-eight per cent, of 
the vegetables purchased for use in their homes came from the 
grocery store, twenty-four per cent, from the farmers' market, 
and eight per cent, from the huckster. Reports received from 
fifty families with a total of two hundred and thirty individuals 
give the daily cost of fresh vegetables as four and six-tenths cents 
a day per person or a total of $83.95 for a family of five for one 
year. The amount expended for canned vegetables as given by 
the housekeepers is much lower than the grocers' estimate and 
exactly half of that spent for fresh vegetables. The daily cost 
per individual was found to be two and three-tenths cents or a 
yearly cost of forty-one dollars and ninety-seven and one-half 
cents for five people. 

The figures on small fruits (including strawberries) as received 
from grocers and housewives are much less definite. They agree, 
however, in stating that from seventy-five to eighty per cent, of 
the year's sale of berries is sold to the consumer through the groc- 
ery stores; that fully ninety per cent, of the berries used are pur- 
chased during the ten weeks to three months that local berries are 
on the market, and that the amount of canned berries consumed 
in the average home is small. During the ten weeks that local 
berries are on the market, forty-six housekeepers, representing 
families containing 209 persons, report a daily average cost of 
three and seven-tenths cents per person. The total cost for a 
family of five for 70 days would be $12.95. Taking the house- 
wives' figures as a basis, a family of five persons spend on an 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 475 

average of $138,871 per year for canned and fresh vegetables and 
fresh berries. The canning of fruits and vegetables in the home 
has decreased, not over five to ten per cent, of the amount con- 
sumed is home canned. 

The price of vegetables and small fruit foods to the city family 
depends largely on the competition between grocers. From the 
standpoint for which it was intended, the farmers' market seems 
to be largel}^ a failure, as on the one hand the city purchasers 
claim that prices are not less than at the stores, and, on the other, 
a large number of farmers consider it more profitable to sell the 
produce all at once and spend the extra time in farm work. City 
ordinances permit the selling of farm produce to the homes with- 
out a huckstering license, but, again, the element of the value of 
the farmer's time enters and very few take advantage of thisi 
method of selling. 

Cultivation and irrigation, — The soil in the city back yards and 
vacant lots is almost without exception well adapted to vegetable 
gardening. There are a few well filled lots, but the number is 
exceedingly small. In most seasons the rainfall is sufficient for 
the maturing of crops if the water is conserved by cultivation. 
During extremely dry spells, back yard gardens may be watered 
without extra cost, as the city water company makes its charge 
per front foot without regard to the depth of the lot. In the case 
of vacant lot gardens there would be an extra cost for the use of 
water. That climatic and soil conditions are well adapted to 
gardening is well shown by the large production of the gardens 
where intensive methods of planting and cultivation are practiced. 

Garden Promotion of Recent Years 

Charity organizatioris and schools.— Several organizations have 
fostered family gardening, and two of the elementary schools have 
conducted school gardens. The high school classes in botany 
purchase seeds through the school, and the students are encouraged 
to make home gardens. Previous to the last garden season, one 
social workers' club, or committee of such club, was instrumental 
in obtaining vacant lots for the use of families who wished to con- 
duct gardens. A few volunteer workers gave freely of their time, 
and good results were accomplished. Last season, this work was 
conducted by the Central Bureau of Charities. In all, forty-six 
apph cations for garden land were received, and gardens were found 
for twenty-two families. No accurate record of the productive 



476 Occupational Information [Part II 

result of these gardens was kept, but considering the Hmited time 
that could be given to the supervision of the work by the secre- 
tary of the Central Bureau, it was considered a success. So far 
as can be learned, gardening for its economical results or educa- 
tional value, has not become the duty of the workers under any 




A Successful HomeJ^Garden iDfRidunond.^! tL L L L L tL 

permanent organization, such as the School Board or Central 
Bureau of Charities. While no attempt should be made to de- 
tract from the value of what has been done, the work has lacked 
definiteness since it has not been on a. sound financial basis, and 
under the direction of trained and practical garden leaders. 

The Ten Elementary Schools 

The elementary school districts form convenient divisions for 
the study of conditions in different parts of the city. In the 
main, these districts are remarkably uniform in size when it is 
considered that the boundaries are marked by the principal bus- 
iness streets, the railroad lines and the Whitewater river. In the 
character of homes, the size of lots, and the living conditions of 
the people, there are marked variations which merit separate dis- 
cussion for each district and school. 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 



477 




478 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



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Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 479 

Finley district. — The Finley school district includes a part of 
the oldest and most closely built section of the city. The houses 
are built on smaller lots than is common in other districts. Sev- 
enty per cent, of the people rent their homes, and some of the 
home grounds are not well cared for. In other homes, well- 
kept lawns are to be found, and in these homes every square foot 
of back yard space is often used for the cultivation of a kitchen 
garden. About twelve per cent, of the back yards are too small 
for the production of enough vegetables for the families but 
large vacant areas are to be found short distances away. An 
examination of ten blocks, containing 214 houses, was made, and 
gave the following result: 26 had no garden space; 62, between 
400 and 1,000 square feet; and 126, more than 1,000 square 
feet. There were two vacant lots in the ten blocks. 

The Finley school had an enrollment of 250 pupils at the be- 
ginning of the school year, 122 of whom were in the upper three 
grades. Ninety-nine children made reports, of which number 
five had vacation work; six, irregular gainful occupation; three 
were engaged in gainful after school employment; and twenty- 
two helped with home work and the care of a garden or chickens. 
Lack of garden space was reported by fourteen children, while 
the other eighty-five had an average of 1,051 square feet each. 

Warner district. — The Warner school district gives a first 
impression of being very closely built. The building line is near 
the street, however, and an examination of the back yards reveals 
more space than would be expected in a district bordering the 
railroads, factories and river. Ten blocks containing 190 houses 
were examined, with the following results: 14 had no garden 
space; 93, between 400 and 1,000 square feet; and 83, over 1,000 
square feet. At twenty-one of the homes some vegetables were 
grown last season. 

The Warner school enrollment in September was 295, with 
146 pupils in the 4th, 5th and 6th grades. Of 111 children re- 
porting on the number of square feet of garden space in the back 
yard, 14 state that they have no space; 59, an average of 400 
square feet; and 38, more than 1.000 square feet. For the 111 
children there is an average of 1,000 square feet each. Fifteen 
children worked during the vacation, three had irregular employ- 
ment, and the three who have regular work after school hours 
earn an average of $1.17 per week. The figures on summer vaca- 
tion earnings were not complete, but, when given, the amounts 
were small. 



480 Occupational Information [Part II 

Starr district. — The Starr school district includes a large area 
of the oldest residential section of the city, and, judging from the 
school enrollment, it has the largest population. The lots, on 
the whole, are large in size, although there are many large homes 
and double houses which cover much ground. A very complete 
study of back yard garden space was made in this district. The 
ground available in every home was measured by the aid of the 
insurance map of the city and these measurements verified by 
visits to some of the homes. Of the 1,198 lots that were exam- 
ined, 137 had little garden space, 358 had from 400 to 1,000 square 
feet, 703 had 1,000 or more square feet, and there were 67 vacant 
lots in the district. 

The Starr school had an enrollment at the beginning of the 
school year of 460 pupils. Two hundred and twenty-five of these 
children were in the three upper grades. Question forms were 
made out by 216 children, of whom twenty had regular vacation 
work, fourteen worked after school, and eight had employment for 
a part of the time during the summer. Twenty-seven children 
either had a garden of their own or helped with the family garden. 
Of the 205 children who reported the amount of land in back 
yards which could be used for gardening, fourteen had little or 
no space, ninety-eight had an average of 400 square feet, and 
ninety-three had more than 1,000 square feet. The average 
space for each of the 205 children was 1,139 square feet. 

Whitewater district. — The Whitewater school district, located 
on the northeast section of the city, while slightly irregular in 
shape, is approximately ten blocks east and west by five north 
and south. A large number of the houses are rented and the 
lack of pride, which comes with ownership, is evidenced by the 
unkept lawns and dilapidated outbuildings which line the alleys 
as regularly as do the houses the streets.. Few of the houses have 
bath rooms or sewer-connected toilets, and the condition of back 
lots, out-houses, and alleys, would indicate that the city 
health ordinances are not being obeyed. A few of the 
homes are as well kept as in other parts of the city. The 
lots are larger than it is common to find in sections of eastern 
cities where the houses are built for rent. A study of the back 
yards of 155 homes of ten blocks in the most congested part of 
the district was made with the following result: 11 had little or 
no space for gardening, 37 had between 400 and 1,000 square feet, 
107 had 1,000 square feet or more, and there were 71 vacant lots, 
all of which space might be used in gardening. 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 481 

In the Whitewater school 285 pupils were enrolled at the be- 
ginning of the present school year, 98 of whom were in the fourth, 
fifth and sixth grades. Ninety-five of these upper grade chil- 
dren, aided by teachers and parents, filled out questionaires from 
which the following figures were obtained: 78 children had no 
definite employment during the summer vacation, 11 worked 
throughout the summer, the other six had irregular work. Twenty- 
two out of 66 children reported that their homes are rented. In 
only three of the 95 back yards is there lack of garden space, 37 
have an average of 400 square feet, and 55 have more than 1,000 
square feet. The total number of square feet given by the 
ninety-five reports is 458,135, or an average of 4,822 square feet 
per child. 

A successful school garden has been conducted at the White- 
water school for the past three years. The garden is not con- 
tinued during the vacation, but only crops maturing before the 
close of school are planted. The value of the crop for the spring 
of 1914 was: Onions, $25.60; radishes, $72.05; and lettuce, 
$29.70. 

Hihberd district. — The Hibberd school district is on the south- 
central edge of the city; to the south and east there is much vaca'.it 
land laid out in city lots and farm land. Some of this land seems 
to be little used, and might well be turned into family garden 
tracts. There are also many scattered vacant lots, some of which 
give evidence of having been cultivated last season. A large num- 
ber of back yards are under cultivation, and the economical use of 
the home grounds give evidence of the thrift of the people. One hun- 
dred and seventy-seven homes were examined in the most closely 
built section of the district, with the following results: 15 had 
little or no lot space adapted to gardening; 39 had from 400 to 1,000 
square feet; and 123 had 1,000 square feet, or more. 

The Hibberd school enrolled 295 children in September, 112 
of whom were in the fourth, fifth and sixth grades. Reports re- 
ceived from 103 children give the following figures: Ten had reg- 
ular vacation work, four worked a part of the time, five worked 
after school, and thirty-seven owned a garden or helped with 
the family garden. The total value of garden products as given 
by thirteen children was $193, or an average of $14.85 each, while 
twelve who worked in stores, or sold papers, etc., earned a total of 
$142.30, an average of $11.86 each. Available home garden 
space was given by eighty-eight children as follows: One, no 
space; forty-three, less than 1,000 square feet; and forty-four, 

31—5463 



482 Occupational Information [Part II 

more than 1,000 square feet. The average garden space per child 
was 5,730 square feet. 

Vaile district. — The Vaile school district is the largest in area 
in the city. Only a few homes have been built in the south eastern 
section which constitutes about one-third of the whole district. 
The house lots are large and the lawns well kept. Many of the 
back yards are in sod and comparatively few vegetable gardens 
are to be found. Just at the south of the district new lot plans 
have been laid out and there is much unused vacant space that 
might be used for gardening. 

The Vaile school had 280 pupils enrolled at the beginning of 
school in the fall. One hundred thirty-seven pupils were in the 
upper three grades. Questionaires were signed by 135 pupils 
but in many cases the information was incomplete, and a few 
parents (the only cases in the elementary schools) objected to 
giving the information sought. Only two pupils report regular 
vacation work, and five earned money a part of the time. In re- 
ply to questions on land available for gardening, many answered 
that they did not have any space, as back yards that were in sod 
were not considered available. Of sixty-four children who gave 
the amount of land that might be used three lived in houses 
without lots; thirty-six had from 400 to 1,000 square feet; and twen- 
ty-five over 1,000 square feet. The average number of square 
feet per child was 2,510. 

Baxter district. — The Baxter school district is in the central 
section on the west side of the city. The large vacant tracts and 
farm lands are therefore all to the west. Near the end of the two 
bridges leading to the business part of the city most of the build- 
ing lots are occupied by houses. These lots are all large, and prac- 
tically all of the homes have available garden space in the back 
yards. 

The Baxter school attendance in September was 285, with 
147 enrolled in the three upper grades. One hundred and thirty- 
three reported on vacation employment as follows: Nine had 
definite work, ten part-time employment, and six after school 
employment. Six of the children who had their own gardens 
made an average profit of ten dollars. One hundred and ten 
children measured the available garden space at home: One had 
no land for gardening, fifty-four had less than 1,000 square feet, 
and fifty-five had a larger amount. The average number of 
square feet per child was 1,617. 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 483 

Sevastopol district. — The Sevastopol school district, on the 
northwest corner of the city, is joined on two sides by open farm- 
ing land, and there are large tracts in the district which are vacant. 
About forty per cent, of the homes have gardens and a few vacant 
tracts are used for cultivation. Many single lots are unused, all 
of which are large enough for a family garden, if intensive garden 
methods were used. A detailed examination of available garden 
land in any section of this district was deemed unnecessary, as 
without question there is enough space available for all who wish 
to use their own lot or to obtain the use of vacant areas. 

The Sevastopol school enrolled 235 children at the commence- 
ment of the school year. One hundred and one pupils were in 
the three upper grades. Several other children have entered 
since that time, as questionaires were filled out by one hundred 
and four children. Sixteen children report definite work from 
which money is earned during the summer vacation; nine irregu- 
lar employment; and eight have after school employment. Gar- 
dens are owned by six of the pupils, and eight others help with the 
family garden. Space available for gardening on the home lot 
was reported as follows: Two, no land; seventeen, 400 to 1,000 
square feet; and sixty-four, 1,000 square feet, or more. Eighty- 
five children had an average of 4,116 square feet each. 

Joseph Moore district. — The Joseph Moore school district, 
considering its area, has the smallest population of any district 
of the city. With few exceptions, the building lots are large, and 
there are many vacant tracts of land. An examination of the 
plat map of the city clearly demonstrated that it was unnecessary 
to make a detailed study of land available for home and vacant 
lot gardening. Back yard gardens are to be found at many of the 
homes, and vacant tracts show evidence of having been culti- 
vated last season. The area used for the production of food for 
the homes of this community could easily be more than doubled. 

The Joseph Moore school might well be called a city school in 
a rural district. The city limit is reached at the south edge of 
the school grounds, and from that point the land is all in farms, 
several of which extend into the corporation. The total enroll- 
ment of children in the school at the beginning of the school year 
was 105, of which number thirty-five were in the three upper 
grades. Reports received from thirty-four of the children demon- 
strates that some garden activities and work on near-by farms 
furnished more employment for older children than is to be found 
in other parts of the city. Twenty-eight of the children claim 



484 Occupational Information [Part II 

some vacation occupation, although in the case of twenty-two 
the work was indefinite and irregular. The six boys who report 
regular work earned an average of $24 each. 

Less than 1.000 square feet of garden space in the home lot 
is reported in only four cases. Thirty-two of the children have 
an average of 2,873 feet per child, and of the other two, one has 
four and the other seventeen and one-half acres. 

The Garfield school. — All of the pupils of the seventh and eighth 
grades of the city are enrolled in the Garfield school. Coming 
from all parts of the city, the reports on garden space by these 
pupils serve as a cross-check on those received from the elemen- 
tary schools. Five hundred and ninety pupils were enrolled when 
school opened in September, of which number information in 
regard to the out-of-school activities and home garden space was 
given by 271 boys and 245 girls. One hundred and twenty-six 
boys worked during the summer vacation selling papers, in stores, 
and similar occupations; sixty-one are employed after school 
hours or on Saturday^ and thirty-six helped at home with the 
care of a garden or chickens. The average income from the boys 
having regular occupations was $36.85. Only four of the girls 
were employed outside of the home, and eleven helped with home 
gardens. 

A survey of the before and after school occupations of the 
pupils of this school was made by the principal a short time ago, 
which gave results as follows: Of 297 boys, thirty-four worked 
before school, 142 had home duties; after school sixty-nine worked 
and one hundred and forty-seven had home duties; of 257 girls, 
none worked before school, 111 had home duties, and thirty-six 
had special lessons; after school, four worked, 172 had home du- 
ties, and 111 had special lessons or worked on school subjects. 
A special record was also made of the desire of the parents and 
children in regard to the home work of the pupils, as follows : Of 
the parents, 163 favored having the children employed, 128 
opposed, and 164 were indifferent; of the children, 309 favored 
having employment, 133 opposed, and 112 were indifferent. 

Reports on home garden space were made by all of the children 
as follows: Forty-five little or no space; 206, an average of 400 
square feet, and 265, more than 1,000 square feet. 

The high school. — No attempt was made to make a complete 
study of the gardening activities and summer occupations of high 
school students. Questionaires were distributed to the freshman 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 485 

botany class and to those who took botany last year. Sixty-two 
blanks were returned by the members of the present class but the 
number received from the pre\'ious class was too small on which 
to base conclusions in regard to the number of gardens cultivated 
as a result of the sale of seeds and class instruction. Of the sixty- 
two reports that were tabulated, five students owned gardens, ten 
helped with family gardens, and a total of thirty-eight families had a 
vegetable garden. Sixteen pupils had regular vacation work from 
which money was earned; seven part-time work; and thirty-eight 
claimed some regular home duties. Three of the students had little 
or no space for a home garden, thirty-eight had less than 1,000 
square feet, and twenty-one had over 1,000 square feet. The 
average space that could be used for a garden by each pupil was 
1,825 square feet. 

About seventy students from farm homes near the city are 
enrolled in the Richmond high school each year. In the course 
of study of the school no provision has been made for the teaching 
of subjects that have a special bearing on country life. 

Country school children. — In order to make a comparison of 
the out-of-school duties of city and country children, a half day 
was spent with the county superintendent of schools, visiting 
schools in the country districts. The early closing of the schools 
of the county prevented making this part of the study as extensive 
as was desired. 

Two schools were visited, one a typical two-room country 
school building to which all the children came from farm homes, 
and the other an eight-room village school, but in the latter all 
children not living on farms were excluded. The same questions 
used in the Richmond schools were asked, and answers recorded 
from 112 pupils. Of these, 103 had definite home duties for which 
they were responsible each day; 16 had their own farm projects 
of w^hich they kept a record, and had any profit which might be 
made; and 3 worked outside the home to earn money. 

Juvenile court records and truancy.— A careful study was made 
of the Juvenile court records since the beginning of such records 
in September 1907. Of two hundred and two cases given, the 
place from which the children were brought follows: 185 were 
from Richmond, six from Cambridge City, four from Hagerstown, 
three from Greensfork, two from Fountain City, one from Boston 
and one from Wayne township. In forty-five of the cases the 
children were from babyhood to six years of age; 24 were between 



486 Occupational Information [Part II 

the ages of seven and nine, inclusive; 113, between ten and four- 
teen; and twenty-nine, sixteen years of age or over. Of the cases 
that were between birth and the ninth year, the cause of appear- 
ance in court rested largely with the parents; between ten and 
fourteen, mischief was the principal complaint; and in the case of 
the older children, mischief and sex immorality were the leading 
causes. 

Complete records of truancy were obtainable only for the 
1914-15 school year. The office of the truaat officer for the city 
was separated from the county during the present school year and 
records were not yet compiled. The distribution of the truancy 
cases for 1914-15 was as follows: Richmond, 461; Cambridge 
City, Hagerstown, Fountain City and Boston, six; and from 
farms, five. 

Children leaving school to work. — The records of working per- 
mits and employers' reports show that there were seventy-nine 
boys and sixty-nine girls under seventeen years of age employed 
in Richmond on March 1, 1916. Eleven of these children left 
school while in the fifth grade; forty in the sixth; thirty-eight in 
the seventh; thirty-seven in the eighth; ten in the first year of the 
high school and three in the second high school year. The fol- 
lowing reasons were given for leaving school: Seventy-six, eco- 
nomic necessit}^; thirty-four wanted to work; thirteen did not like 
school; and twenty-three for varying reasons. For a more com- 
plete discussion see Chapter XXIV, ''Juvenile Employment." 
The fact that twenty-nine of the children left school before the 
age at which they could be emploj^ed under the state law, seems 
to indicate that they gave up their studies because the school 
subjects had ceased to be of interest to them, or that they had 
failed to receive promotion. The majority of those holding 
working permits attended Indiana schools, fifty-seven were born 
in Richmond, forty-eight in other parts of the state, thirty-eight 
in other states, and three are of foreign birth. One hundred thir- 
teen of the children attended the Richmond public schools; twenty, 
Richmond parochial schools; and thirteen came to the city from 
schools elsewhere. 

Industrial conditions and charity. — During the last three years 
several of the larger manufacturers of the city have either moved 
to other places or discontinued business. The resulting shortage 
of work caused financial stress in a large number of families. The 
Central Bureau of Charities was called to aid 784 family units 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 



487 



last year. This number is, however, about double that receiving 
help during normal times. Some of those who were out of work 
moved to other cities, and a few secured places as farm laborers 
or became tenant farmers. 

During the panics of 1893-1897, when there was a shortage of 
work all over the country, a large number of Richmond people 
were unable to find work, and in order to provide the necessities 
of life obtained work on farms. Young men who had come to 
the city from farm homes, returned, and others became farm 
laborers and tenants. The return of prosperity and resumption 
of business brought only a small part of these people back to the 
city, and many are now prosperous farmers of Wayne County. 




A Poorly Kept Alley. 



City beauty and civic pride. — There are many expensive homes 
in the city of Richmond, but, with few exceptions, they lack com- 
pleteness because of the absence of vines and shrubbery. A large 
number of homes were examined to determine what had been done 
in the way of planting perennials to decorate the houses; about 
ten per cent, of the houses were well planted, forty per cent, had 
a few shrubs and vines, and fifty per cent, had no planting. 



488 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



When the trees are in leaf this defect is somewhat covered by 
the many street shade trees and by well-kept lawns. The pre- 
vailing tj^pe of architecture particularly needs additional 
adornment. The most common shrubs now used in the lands- 
caping of the homes are lilacs, syringas, and spireas. In many 
places there are ungraceful bushes with small tufts of green at the 
tops due to a lack of intelligent care. The advantage coming from 
the use of evergreen shrubs, under Richmond climatic conditions, 
does not seem to be appreciated. A knowledge of home beautifi- 
cation on the part of the people might easily double the city's 
beauty and increase property values. The statement of one 
Richmond real estate dealer on this point should be convincing. 
He says, ''A home with a well decorated exterior is half sold." 




A Well Kept Richmond Alley. This is a Credit to the City. 



The plan of laying out as many alleys as streets has both ad- 
vantages and disadvantages. In these alleys are buildings of 
all sizes, colors and conditions of repair. The presence of the 
alley offers the excuse and easily leads to the habit of dumping 
everything which is not needed in the house or yard over the 
back fence. In some sections of the city, the alleys are a dis- 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 489 

grace to the town and a menace to public health, while in others 
they are well kept. 

Glen Miller Park is a credit to the city, but its location is such 
that people of the central and western part of the city do not 
visit it often on account of the great distance. The central 
landscape feature of the city seems to have been overlooked en- 
tirely. The Whitewater river valley holds great scenic possibilities 
and has the advantage of being located where it can be seen each 
day by many residents and all strangers who visit the city. 

Summary of Findings and Conclusions 

Homes. — Although located in the center of a farming region, 
the prices paid for vegetables are comparatively high. Prices 
are standardized by present methods of selling. Considering the 
low average labor income, the amount spent for vegetable foods 
is large. About thirty per cent, of the families have home or 
vacant lot vegetable gardens, but the methods of planting and 
cultivation are not intensive, and the money value of the pro- 
duct is small. Of all the homes in the city, less than ten per cent, 
lack space on which to make a practical kitchen garden as shown 
by Table 25; thirty per cent, have enough land to produce all the 
vegetables for the family during the productive season of the 
garden; and sixty per cent, have an area large enough to produce 
fresh and canned vegetables and berries for the entire year, and, 
in many cases, they have a surplus to sell. There is enough vacant 
ground so that all of those who are without land could secure 
enough for a family garden. Vacant lots can be rented for one 
dollar each but are usually secured free of charge. When remun- 
eration is necessary the amount is so small that it would have 
little effect in decreasing^ the profits. 

Schools. — The school year in Richmond is nine months in length 
and the school day five hours. The children are out of school 
nearly half of the week days of the entire year, and three-fourths 
of the days of the garden season. On school days, less than half 
of the daylight hours are spent in the class room. All of the 
children of the city might have occupations two hours per day 
on school days and four on Saturdays, hohdays and in the sum- 
mer vacation, and yet have enough time left for play, reading, 
music, and other special studies. At the present time only 9.1 
per cent, of the elementary school children as shown by Table 26 
have regular productive occupation during vacation; 7 per cent.. 



490 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



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Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 491 

irregular employment; and 4.4 per cent, work after school hours. 
In the Garfield school, nineteen per cent, are engaged in earning 
monej^ before and after school, and twenty-five per cent, during 
the vacation. Of the high school students reporting, only one- 
fourth have vacation occupation. 

Of 889 children in the elementary schools reporting on home 
garden space, six per cent, were without home lots, thirty-nine 
per cent, had an average of 400 square feet, and fifty-five per 
cent, had 1,000 or more square feet, as shown by Table 27. 

In several cities where home gardening has been conducted 
under the direction of the public schools, the children have 
been able to produce a net profit of ten cents per square foot. 
The children of the ten elementary schools of Richmond should be 
able, on the basis of the number of square feet reported as shown 
by Table 27, to earn from their gardens a total of $62,820 or an 
average per child of $70.66. The home garden income from the 
516 reporting from the Garfield school would be $34,740, or an 
average per child of $67.32. 

In some cases the same land has been reported on by two chil- 
dren of the same family, one attending the elementary schools and 
the other the Garfield school. These cases will, however, be off- 
set by the large vacant tracts of which no account has been made, 
and while the figures may seem large there is little doubt that each 
public school child of an age sufficient to care for a garden may 
produce enough to reduce the cost of vegetables in his home to 
half the present cost. 

A comparatively large number of children leave school each 
year, some because they need to earn money toward the support 
of the home, and others because school subjects do not interest 
them. The earnings of these children are small and the earning 
powers might be much increased if a more complete education were 
received. The number of cases of juvenile delinquency and truancy 
is very much greater in the city than in the country. With each 
industrial depression city families turn to the country to seek a 
means of livelihood. Agricultural instruction is not given in the 
schools and thus the younger pupils do not become interested in 
the subject; older students are unable to pursue the subject 
vocationally, and those who, from financial necessity, seek the coun- 
try have a small earning capacity and are unable to adapt them- 
selves to country life. 

The beauty of the city might be much increased if the citizens 



492 



Occupational Information 



[Part II 



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Warner 

Starr 

Whitewater. . 

Hibberd 

Vaile 

Baxter 

Sevastopol. . . 
Joseph Moore 





Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 493 

were familiar with the methods of cultivation and the care of 
decorative plants. 

Value of garden training in Richmond. — A thorough and prac- 
tical garden training would have great economic and educational 
value to all of the people of the city. To make the most success- 
ful gardens knowledge and skill are necessary. Profitable garden- 
ing may result from years of experience, but the quickest and 
greatest returns in money and pleasure can be obtained onlj^ when 
experience is combined with scientific study of soil, climate, and 
crop production. Many people born in the city have little or 
no knowledge of making practical home gardens, and even those 
who have lived on farms have little experience in the kind of inten- 
sive gardening adapted to the city. The schools are established 
for the education of all the people and therefore are the logical 
centers for garden teaching. Through them such teaching may 
be given more economically and permanently than through any 
other agency. 

The economical and educational value of garden education as 
a department of the public educational system of the city should 
reach all of the people. While the garden teachers would devote 
their attention primarily to the children, they should also act as 
a source of information and help to all who are interested in gar- 
dening. The following advantages should result from the estab- 
lishment of such a department: 

A thousand children might be employed in healthful and gain- 
ful occupation during the out-of-school hours. 

All of the unused land and unproductive time of the children 
might be used to contribute to the wealth of the home and com- 
munity. 

Many children will be able to remain in school longer by con- 
tributing to the income of the home. 

From regular work the children would form regular habits of 
industry and learn the value of money. 

Many of the children are in the psychological period at which 
gardening is nominally play-work, and under the right system of 
teaching it will not become burdensome to any. 

Garden teaching affords the best kind of nature study teaching. 

General school subjects will be vitahzed by correlation with 
gardening and children who have lost interest in learning for 
learning's sake will renew interest by having the schools take up 
a subject in which it is possible to learn and earn through doing. 



494 Occupational Information [Part II 

Real interest in school work prevents truancy. 

By having regular occupation the pupils will be saved from 
evils caused by idleness and are less liable to commit Juvenile 
Court offenses. 

Back yards and vacant lots would be cleared and cleaned and 
home environments improved. 

The teaching of methods of planting decorative plants would 
increase civic pride and city beauty. 

A thrifty next generation would be developed who would be 
proud of Richmond, the city they developed. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Based on the facts collected in this investigation, the following 
recommendations are made. 

Board of Education. — That the Board of Education of Rich- 
mond commit itself to the plan of establishing a complete depart- 
ment of Vocational Agricultural Education in the public schools 
within the next three years. That it be the policy of the Board 
to require that those who are employed to direct the Vocational 
Agriculture, adapt their teaching to the needs of the youth of the 
city. The aim shall be to give the Vocational Agricultural courses 
to young people of the city of Richmond and those of the sur- 
rounding districts who come to the Richmond schools, who wish 
to take up farming as a life work. In accomplishing this end, 
practical projects will include the production of vegetables and 
small fruits, as well as general farming crops. 

Vocational agricultural department. — The city plan of organiza- 
tion is shown on page thirty-one. A teacher who is trained in 
theoretical and practical agriculture, should be employed to teach 
in the Vocational Agricultural Department, and also to be the 
general home garden supervisor. This teacher should be em- 
ployed for twelve months and his work will involve the teaching 
of students who wish to study agriculture from a vocational 
standpoint, and the training, supervising and assisting of teachers 
of each school district who are associated with him in vocational 
agricultural work. 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 495 



PLAN OF ORGANIZATION OF HOME GARDEN 
DEPARTMENT IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 



HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 
CITY AGRICULTURAL SUPERVISOR 



(In charge of the ten part-time teachers working in the nine elementary 

schools.) 



GARFIELD SCHOOL 
HOME GARDEN TEACHER, ASSISTANT SUPERVISOR 



FINLE Y. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
WARNER. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
STARR. Two part-time Home Garden Teachers. 
WHITEWATER. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
HIBBE RD . One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
VAILE. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
BAXTER. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
SEVASTOPOL. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 
JOSEPH MOORE. One part-time Home Garden Teacher. 

This teacher or teachers should be chosen in accordance with 
the standards and qualifications required by the State Board of 
Education for the administration of vocational agriculture. 
Vocational agriculture work approved by the State Board of 
Education is subject to state aid to the extent of two-thirds of 
the teacher's salary, in accordance with the State Vocational 
Educational law enacted in 1913. 

Indiana School Law 

Vocational Education: 

Section 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the State 
of Indiana, the following words and phrases as used in this act 
shall, unless a different meaning is plainly required by the con- 
text, have the following meanings: 



496 Occupational Information [Part II 

1. ''Vocational education" shall mean any education the 
controlling purpose of which is to fit for profitable employment. 

2. "Industrial education" shall mean that form of vocational 
education which fits for the trades, crafts and wage-earning pur- 
suits, including the occupation of girls and women carried on in 
stores, workshops, and other establishments. 

3. "Agricultural education" shall mean that form of vocation- 
al education which fits for the occupations connected with the 
tillage of the soil, the care of domestic animals, forestry and other 
wage-earning or productive work on the farm. 

5. "Industrial, agricultural or domestic science school or 
department" shall mean an organization of courses, pupils and 
teachers designed to give either industrial, agricultural or do- 
mestic science education as herein defined, under a separate di- 
rector or head. 

Establishment of Schools. 

Section 2. Any school city, town or township may through its 
board of school trustees or school commissioners or township 
trustees, establish vocational schools or departments for indus- 
trial, agricultural and domestic science education in the same man- 
ner as other schools and departments are established and may 
maintain the same from the common school funds or from a special 
tax levy not to exceed ten cents on each $100 of taxable property, 
or partly from the common school funds and partly from such tax. 
School cities, towns and townships are authorized to maintain 
and carry on instruction in elementary domestic science, indus- 
trial and agricultural subjects as a part of the regular course of 
instruction. (R. S. 1916, 6641 B.) 

State Maintenance. 

Section 14. The state, in order to aid in the maintenance of 
approved vocational schools or departments for industrial, agri- 
cultural and domestic science education, shall, as provided in 
this act, pay annually to school cities and towns and townships 
maintaining such schools and departments an amount equal to 
two-thirds of the sum expended for instructions in vocational and 
technical subjects authorized and approved by the State Board 
of Education. Such cost of instruction shall consist of the total 
amount raised by local taxation and expended for the teachers 
of approved vocational and technical subjects." 



Chap. XXV] Home and S( hool Gardening 497 

Garfield school. — A teacher qualified to teach vocational agri- 
culture, should be employed for twelve mouths each year to teach 
the pupils of the Garfield school. This teacher should require 
that all of his pupils carry out a profitable home project each 
year, and he should draw his teaching; lessons from the practical 
home work of the children. This teacher should be an assistant 
to the Director of Vocational Agricultural Education in Richmond 
and should be required to furnish a list of names and addresses, 
together with an outline of the project of each Garfield school 
pupil living in each school district, to a part-time home garden 
teacher of the district concerned. After school hours, on Satur- 
day, and during the summer vacation, it should be the duty of 
this teacher to visit the pupils' homes and in co-operation with the 
district part-time teacher, to assist and instruct the children in 
their home projects. 

In case there is a demand or need for vocational instruction 
in agriculture by children of Junior High School age, who are 
emploj^ed in Richmond and who have left school, the teaching 
should be done by the vocational agriculture teacher of the Gar- 
field school. In accordance with the state law, two-thirds of the 
salary of this teacher may be received from the State Vocational 
Fund for this work, provided the pupils are fourteen years of age 
or over, and pursue the subject from a vocational standpoint. 

The elementary schools. — One part-time home-garden teacher 
should be employed in each of the elementary schools except the 
Starr school, in which there are over 200 children of garden age 
and two teachers will be necessary. A regular grade teacher may 
be employed to do this work only when proof of complete and 
practical garden training has been given. At the present time, 
with one possible exception, none of the teachers in service are 
trained to do this work in a practical way. Three years have been 
given as the length of time needed to put the complete garden 
teaching plan into operation, in order that teachers may have time 
to receive training. This training may be acquired by taking 
summer courses at agricultural colleges, but the practical side of 
gardening should be taught in teachers' classes conducted after 
school hours by the city Supervisor. 

As soon as a home garden teacher has been appointed in any 
elementary school, the teaching program should be so arranged 
that two lessons per week can be given by this teacher in each of 
the three upper grade rooms. Purely agricultural text-book 
teaching is not to form any part of these lessons but the material 

32—5463 



498 Occupational Information [Part II 

for each class period should be drawn from the pupil's home work. 
After school, on Saturday, and during the summer vacation the 
home project teacher should visit the homes of the pupils and 
instruct them; first, to make practical kitchen gardens; second, 
where space admits, to raise grapes and small fruits; and when 
this has been thoroughly conquered, attention may be given to 
the planting of decorative shrubs and vines and the complete 
landscaping of the home. The garden teacher will be able to 
visit the home gardens often, as, using the school as a center, prac- 
tically all of the children live within five blocks. 

Each of the elementary school home-garden teachers should 
receive the names and addresses of all Garfield school pupils and 
assist the home project teacher of that school by helping to give 
instruction to these pupils. An effort should be made to interest 
all children who have working permits in home project gardening 
and each garden teacher should, in so far as possible, assist any 
one in his district who wishes advice or information on gardening. 
Complete reports on the financial returns of these home projects 
should be made and the work of the teacher should not be con- 
sidered completely successful unless the combined financial re- 
turns of the projects are larger than the salary which he receives 
from the Board of Education. 



Chap. XXV] Home and School Gardening 499 

CORRELATION CHART 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

FINLEY, WARNER, STARR, WHITEWATER, HIBBERD, VAILE, 
BAXTER, SEVASTOPOL, JOSEPH MOORE 

GARFIELD SCHOOL 

(7th and 8th Grades) 



HIGH SCHOOL 



CITY 

SUPERINTENDENT OF 

SCHOOLS 



STATE SUPERVISOR OF 
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF 

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

STATE BOARD OF 

EDUCATION 



PURDUE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 

INDIANA UNIVERSITY AND 
STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT UNITED STATES BUREAU 

OF AGRICULTURE OF EDUCATION 



500 OCT'TIPATIONAL INFORMATION [PaRT TI 

CORRELATION CHART 

Under the foregoing plan the following list of agencies should 
all function in working out a complete home gardening plan in 
Richmond. 

Elementary Schools — Ten part-time home garden teachers to 

teach and promote gardening; two in the Starr district, and 

one in each of the eight other districts. 
Garfield school. — One home garden teacher and assistant city 

garden supervisor. 
High school. — One vocational garden teacher and city garden 

supervisor. 
City Superintendent of schools. — General administration and 

correlation with other school subjects. 
State Supervisor of Agricultural Education. — General supervision 

and advice. 
State Superintendent Pubhc Instruction and State Board of Edu- 
cation. — Administration of state funds under vocational 

educational law. 
Purdue University.- — Furnishing agricultural information. 
School of Education, State University and State Normal School. 

■ — Training of teachers and school organization. 
United States Department of Agriculture. — General agricultural 

information. 
United States Bureau of Education. — Home garden organization, 

adapting agricultural information to school use. 

SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS 

This study was made ])y the courtesy and under the direction 
of the United States Bureau of Education, this Bureau reserving 
the right to make recommendations" in keeping with its usual 
pohcy for this field of work. The recommendations incorporated 
in the body of the report are concurred in by the Local Survey 
Committee and the Conference Committee, of which the State 
Supervisor of Agricultural Education was a member. In view of 
these circumstances, the General Survey Committee did not con- 
sider this report in detail. 



PARTj^THREE 

PRESENT PROVISIONS FOR VOCATIONAL EDU- 
CATION AND SURVEY COMMITTEE 
RECOMMENDATIONS 



(501) 



CHAPTER XXVI 



THE SCHOOLS AND CHILDREN OP RICHMOND 

For the general facts concerning the development of the Rich- 
mond schools,, the reader is referred to Chapter II, ''The City of 
Richmond." 

School enrollment. — On February 1, 1916, there were 3,774 
pupils enrolled in the Richmond public schools, approximately 
1,000 in the four parochial schools and 100 in a private business 
college. The public school enrollment is as follows in the various 
schools: 

Boys Girls 

High school (grades 9 to 12, inclusive) .... 361 356 

Garfield school (grades 7 and 8) 312 275 

Elementary schools (kindergarten to grade 

6, inclusive) 1,236 1,234 

Total 1,909 1,865 

TABLE 28 

Number of Pupils Over, Normal and Under Age by 
Grade and Sex 



GRADE 


Over Age 


Normal Age 


Under Age 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


3.4 
10.1 
10.2 
17.8 
25.9 
13.9 
23.1 
21.6 
23.3 
12.6 
17.8 

8.3 


2.8 

5.7 

7.6 

13.2 

13.5 

11.2 

14.7 

9.8 

12.6 

8.6 

13.9 

11.6 


94.7 

82.2 
78.0 
61.1 
56.8 
71.6 
57.9 
61.9 
58.9 
63.3 
58.4 
68.1 


94.8 
84.1 
71.7 
65.9 
68.6 
72.5 
62.0 
65.2 
68.1 
65.5 
59.6 
62.5 


1.9 
7.7 
11.8 
21.1 
17.3 
14.5 
19.0 
16.5 
17.8 
24.1 
23.8 
23.6 


2.4 
10.2 
20.7 
20.9 
17 9 


6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


16.3 
23.3 
25.0 
19.3 
25.9 
26.5 
25.9 


Average total .... 


14.6 


8.8 


71.2 


74.6 


14.2 


16.6 



(503) 



504 



Provisions and Kecommendations [Part III 



Progress of pupils.— The progress of pupils in terms of percent- 
age of average, normal and under age for each gnade is reported in 
Table 28. It will be noted that the greatest percentage of over- 
ageness occurs in the fifth, seventh, eighth and ninth grades. In 
these grades, also, occur the greatest elimination. 

Elimination of pupils. — The Superintendent of Schools prepares 
annually an age grade table from which the facts of elimination 
may be roughly computed. These tables, which are available 
for a number of years preceding the present, show the holding 
power of the schools to be above the average. For the facts of 
elimination which are significant for the purposes of vocational 
education, the reader is referred to Chapter XXIV, 'Muvenile 
Employment." 



TABLE 29 

Present Place in the Grades of 13 and 14 Year Old 
Boys and Girls 



13 Year Old Pupils 

1 


GRADE 


14 Year C 


>ld Pupils 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 




2 
3 
7 
14 
38 
50 
20 


3. 






4 


4 


1 

1 

4 

32 

36 

40 

19 

1 

1 


2 


23 


5 

6 

7 

8 

9 




23 
45 
50 
21 


4 
19 
30 
47 


1 


10 


21 






11 


4 






12 













167 


134 


Total 


135 


127 



Thirteen and fourteen year old pupils. — It is most significant to 
note where the thirteen and fourteen year old boys and girls arc 
now enrolled in the school system, because from among them will 
come the new crop of working permit pupils. These facts are 
reported in Table 29. 

Fourteen to sixteen year old pupils. — In the consideration of 
day vocational courses, the most vital facts are those concerning 
youths between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. In Richmond, 



Chap. XXVI] Schools and Children 505 

according to the school census taken in April, 1916, there was a 
total of 432 males of the ages of fourteen, fifteen and sixteen 
years. Of this number, 231 were enrolled in the public schools and 
65 in the parochial schools. Eighty-five were reported as working 
and no data was secured from 49. It is reasonable to assume that 
the majority of the 49 about whom no information was obtained 
were unemployed. 

There were 451 females of the ages of fourteen, fifteen and sixteen 
years reported as living in Richmond on the same date. Of this 
number 213 were enrolled in the public schools and 94 in the 
parochial schools. Sixty-six were reported as working and no 
data was secured from seventy-eight. 

In the case of both sexes it is thus seen that the majority are 
still in school, and that their needs may be met by establishing 
vocational courses in the regular schools. This is quite contrar}^ 
to the usual conception that the majority of these ages are out of 
school, and that, therefore, continuation education is more ser- 
iously needed than vocationalizing the courses for those now in 
attendance in the schools. 

Richmond situation typical. — In view of the large number of 
detailed studies which have been made and reported concerning 
the general facts of school enrollment, progress of pupils, etc., 
and the similarity of the findings in Richmond to previous find- 
ings, a large part of the data gathered is not reported in detail. 
The Richmond situation is typical of cities of the 25,000 class the 
country over, with the exception that the holding power of the 
schools is somewhat greater than the average. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



PRESENT PROVISIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL, COM- 
MERCIAL AND HOUSEHOLD ARTS 
INSTRUCTION IN RICHMOND 
SCHOOLS 

As day vocational courses for the Richmond children must be 
related to the school system as a unit, it is essential to determine 
the scope, purpose, content and provisions in terms of equipment, 
teachers and supervisors for industrial, commercial, household 
and other related courses now being taught. 

The data upon which the following summaries and analyses of 
the present courses are based were derived from conferences with 
the Superintendent of Schools, supervisors and teachers, and a 
careful study of course outlines prepared by supervisors and 
teachers. No attempt was made to measure the quality of class 
room instruction. 

The Elementary Schools: Grades One to Six 
Industrial and Fine Arts 

General organization and supervision. — The industrial and fine 
arts courses in the first six grades are organized and directed b}^ a 
special supervisor. The supervisor prepares the course out- 
lines, orders and distributes the necessary supplies, meets the 
grade teachers for frequent discussions concerning the work to be 
done and visits the various classes during the industrial and fine 
arts periods, to supervise instruction and render necessary assist- 
ance to the teachers. The supervisor is assisted by a high school 
teaclier, who helps in the sewing and cooking in the sixth grades, 
on a part-time basis. 

Purpose of courses. — The purpose of the course in industrial 
and fine arts in the first six grades as expressed by the supervisor 
is ^'the development of social intelhgence and appreciation through 
understanding the things of the environment which have resulted 
from man's transformation of the raw materials about him into 
finished products to meet the needs for records, food, shelter, 
clothing, tools and utensils." 

The viewpoint of the Speyer School Curriculum of Teachers' 

(507) 



608 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 



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Special Studies. 
Books: 
U. S. Bulletins. 
How the World is Fed. 
Stories of Useful In- 
ventions. 


Books: 
How the World is 

Housed. 
Home Life in Ail 
Lands. 


Books: 

Home Life in All 
Lands. 

How the World is 
Clothed. 

Collections of Pam- 
phlets. 


Books: 

Portland Cement to 

M-7 Book. 
Clay and Clay Pro- 

diicts (Ries;. 


Books: 

Stories of Useful In- 
ventions. 

How the World is 
Housed. 


> 

1 

o 


Foods studied as out- 
lined to unify with 
the cooking. Geog- 
raphy and history. 


Study woods and 
building construc- 
tion. Visit shops 
and houses in con- 
struction. Wood- 
work for boys. 


Study of silk and re- 
view other fabrics. 
Modern use of tex- 
tiles; cost, economic 
value and artistic 
use. Girls make 
cooking apron, cap 
and towel. 


Concrete used wher- 
ever needed to con- 
struct. Study mix- 
ing, laying, etc. 


8 . 

Q3 

m 


> 

1 


Foods of people stud- 
ied in history and 
geography com- 
pared: 
Middle Ages. 
English History. 
Early U. S. His- 
tory. 


Review shelter and 
study building ma- 
terial as they come 
in with study of his- 
tory and geography, 
etc. 


11. 
Ill 

^ a a 
iai 


Make tiles, pottery and 
low relief construc- 
tion, study clays, 
brickmaking, tiles; 
uses. History of pot- 
tery and china. 


Study the evolution of 
the book, story of 
paper. Cardboard 
construction. Make 
pad, art book, port- 
folio. 


> 

O 


Foods of home com- 
pared with peoples 
studied: 
Greek Stories. 
Roman Stories. 
Colonial People. 
See History. 


Study of Colonial 
homes and the Greek 
and Roman build- 
ings. 


Study of cotton, wool 
and flax. Collect 
samples. Use in Col- 
onial times. Use by 
Greeks and Romans. 
Sewing and weave 
large rug. 


m 

^ b& 

TO TO a 

11.1 

TO 


Tree Book. Japanese 
binding in fine arts. 


1 


Foods of home com- 
pared with peoples' 
studied: 
Later Cave Men. 
Hebrew Peoples. 
Early Richmond 
Settlers. 
See History. 


Shelter. Present hous- 
ing condition com- 
pared with: 

Cave Men. 

Hebrew Peoples. 

Early Richmond. 


Clothing of people 
now compared with: 

Cave Men. 

Hebrew People. 

Early Richmond. 
Dress the Dolls. 


Study of clay. Illus- 
trations in relief of 
stories, sand table 
construction, etc. 
See history and ge- 
ography. 


Pilgrim Booklet. 
Christmas Booklet. 
Bird Booklet. 


i 


Foods of home com- 
pared with primitive 

Tree Dwellers. 
Cave Men. 
Indiana. 
See History. 


Shelter. Home com- 
pared with 
Tree Dwellers. 
Cave Men. 
Indiana. 


Clothing. Present use 
compared with: 
Tree Dwellers. 
Cave Men. 
Indiana and Early 
Peoples. 


Study of clay. Illus- 
trations. Toys, dish- 
es for doll's house, 
foods for Thanks- 
giving, etc. 


Booklets. See Ind. 1 Picture Booklet. 
Art I. Pilgrim. 


i 


Foods studied as to 
use in home and 
community. Grouped 
around seasons. Vis- 
its to bakery, dairy 
and farm 


Shelter studied as to 
home and commun- 
ity. Nature's meth- 
ods, etc. Work cen- 
tered around the 
seasons. 


Seasons taken as 
center. Clothing of 
family, animals and 
plants studied. 


Study of clay. Make 
toys, dishes, ani- 
mals and vegetables 
in the round. 




Foods 




TO 




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Chap. XXVII 



Present Provisions 



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Peovisions and Recommendations [Part III 



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The Spiral system is used 
and pupils in advanced 
grades do better work. 

Decorations in fine art 
are unified with In- 
dustrial Arts. 


Elementary design and 
spacing: Color har- 
mony. 


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Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 511 

College has been adopted for this work in Richmond, and tha 
realization of the Speyer course is the goal toward which the 
supervisor is working. 

There is no sharp line of division between the work in indus- 
trial and fine arts in the first six grades, and wherever possible, 
these courses are closely related to the other school curriculum. 

Required or elective. — All courses in the first six grades are 
required of all boys and girls enrolled, except in the sixth grades, 
where the girls do some cooking and sewing not required of the 
boys, and the boys do some work in wood and cement construc- 
tion not required of the girls. 

Who teaches and where taught. — In all of the first six grades, the 
industrial and art courses are taught by the regular grade teachers. 
Regular class rooms are used, with the exceptions that in the 
Whitewater and Finley schools, cooking rooms are available for 
the use of the sixth grades, the other sixth grades, going to the high 
school cooking laboratory. 

Time allotment. — The time allotment is as follows: 
First grade 5 recitations weekly of 30 minutes each 
Second grade 5 recitations weekly of 30 minutes each 
Third grade 5 recitations weeklj'- of 30 minutes each 
Fourth grade 5 recitations weekly of 30 minutes each 
Fifth grade 3 recitations weekly of 1 hour and 30 minutes each 
Sixth grade 3 recitations weekly of 1 hour and 30 minutes each 

Equipment. — The tools and equipment ordinarily used for 
class work in industrial and fine arts are available in Richmond. 
These include rulers, scissors, sand tables, blocks, crayons, paints, 
paper, clays, textiles, etc. In the Whitewater school a room in 
the basement 29|x24j feet with S^-foot ceiling is provided with a 
cooking equipment valued at seventy-five dollars. This equipment 
includes cooking tables, gas stove, range, hot plates, sinks and 
the usual number and kinds of cooking utensils. 

Courses. — Tables 30 and 31 give a birdseye view of the indus- 
trial and fine arts courses. 

The Garfield School: Grades Seven and Eight 

Present building and facilities inadequate.— All of the seventh 
and eighth grade pupils in the Richmond pubhc schools are grouped 
in a single school centrally located, called the Garfield Junior High 
School. The present building is very old and not well adapted to 



512 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

the needs of the school. No attempt is made in this report to 
show in detail that this building is inadequate, because the Board 
of Education has already committed itself to the policy of erect- 
ing a new building, pending the completing of the Survey and its 
recommendations. 

Enrollment and general organization.- — In the second semester 
1916, there were 315 boys and 275 girls enrolled in the school. 
Of this number, 23.1 per cent, boys and 14.7 per cent, girls in the 
7th grade were average, and 21.6 per cent, boys and 9.8 per cent, 
girls in the 8th grade were average; while there were almost as 
many under age, there being 19.0 per cent, boys and 16.5 per cent, 
girls in the 7th grade under age, and 23.3 per cent, boys and 25.0 
per cent, girls in the 8th grade under age. 

The school is administered by a principal and assistant and 20 
teachers. Quoting from the school bulletin regarding the general 
plan of school organization, ^'Pupils are grouped in assembly 
rooms alphabetically, without reference to grade, and as far as 
practical, remain in the same room and in charge of the same 
teacher through all terms spent in the school. This plan gives the 
pupil a sense of permanency, the lack of which was found at first 
to be one of the chief objections to the departmental plan of organ- 
ization. Assembly rooms for boys are in charge of men and those 
for girls in charge of women. 

''The school day is divided into six periods of fifty minutes 
each, and one of thirty minutes, classes in arithmetic, geography, 
history, etc., recite twenty-five minutes and then spend twenty- 
five minutes in the preparation of the next day's lesson in the 
same subject under the supervision of the teacher. 

''Promotion to high school is on the credit system, the total 
numbei* of credits possible for each term's work being six, or twen- 
ty-four for fou]- terms; but a pupil who has twenty-two is pro- 
moted, provided no two of the cj-edits shui't aj'e due in the same 
subject. 

"At the close of the 7B term pupils who have shown exceptional 
ability are placed in a special class and the work so arranged that 
tliey are ready for high school in two terms more instead of three 
regularly taken. About one-fourth of the pupils are able to do 
this special work. 

Course of studij. — "The course of study is made up of the com- 
mon branches as usually taught in the seventh and eighth grades 
except that the pupils are permitted to elect for one-sixth of their 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 513 

work, one of the following: Latin, German, English Composition, 
or Industrial work. Only pupils who have been strong in the 
previous work are permitted to elect the Latin and Germaii and 
one high school credit is given in either of these subjects." This 
apparent elective system is not really an elective system, as pupils 
averaging under 85 in scholarship in the 6th grade, are auto- 
matically placed in the industrial group and others in the language 
group. 

According to the statement in the school bulletin: ''The 
industrial work offered is conducted more with a view of enabling 
tlie pupils to discover in what line his talents lie than to preparing 
Iiim for any particular trade. The course includes printing, wood- 
work, and mechanical drawing for the boys; and sewing, cooking 
and other home topics for the girls." As yet, this laudable pur- 
pose has in no wise been realized. 

All boys have five fifty-minute periods weekly of industrial 
work during the two years' course. This includes only wood- 
working, mechanical and free-hand drawing. All girls are required 
to take five fifty-minute periods of household arts work. 

For the boys who elect the industrial course, printing is added 
to the woodwork or drawing; and for the girls electing what is 
called the ''industrial course," more extensive work is done along 
the line of household arts work. 

The limitations of the present plan. — While little will be gained 
))y discussing the limitations of the present building and equip- 
ment, much will be gained by throwing open the basic problems 
involved in the present plan of organization of the school. Upon 
completing the 6A grades, pupils receive a card upon which they, 
in co-operation with their parents, may specify the course the pupil 
desires to elect in the Garfield school. The options are Latin or 
German foi- the boys and girls whose average in all school sub- 
jects was 85 oi- ovei-; oj' English Composition and Industrial work 
for boys and girls whose average scholaiship was under 85. 
Teacheis report that practically none of those who have a scholar- 
ship mark above 85 elect the industrial work. For example, of 
the 41 boys in the 7B grade who have elected the industrial work, 
all but 2 were inehgible on account of poor scholarship to take 
Latin or German. Having elected the industrial work, they cannot 
take the extra English Composition course, which is needed in 
connection with printing. The 41 boys taking printing for the 
first time, are those whose scholarship was rated as poor in the 
lower grades, and, if the teachers' rating of poor scholarship was 

33—5463 



514 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

correct, the boys cannot become successful printers, and are thus 
exposed to work in which they stand but shght chance of success. 

The whole plan of the Garfield school now actually operates so 
that the industrial courses are taken by the boys and girls who 
have not succeeded in the lower grades. Their records in indus- 
trial work, also show that they are not doing well in this work 
according to the standards of the teachers. 

Another phase of the plan deserves consideration. To grad- 
uate for the high school, certain work in Latin or German is 
required. The ''industrial" boys and girls in the Garfield school 
are barred in this school, from beginning the language work they 
will have to take in the high school. This all operates to discour- 
age these boys and girls from entering the high school. 

Number electing industrial and household arts courses. — The 
following boys and girls of each grade are at present in the so- 
called industrial group: 

Grade Boys Girls 

7B 41 21 

7A 38 22 

8B 27 16 

8A 26 27 

Total 132 86 

General course descriptions'. Industrial. — The industrial courses 
are old fashioned Manual Training courses, of a mediocre type; 
here rated as mediocre because of poor rooms and equipment, 
projects of but little interest to boys, and entire lack of content 
value regarding industry and industrial life. Aside from the addi- 
tion of printing, given the boys electing the industrial work, their 
work is just the same in type as the work for the other boys, only 
more intensive. 

General course descriptions: Household arts. — All courses in the 
household arts are modern in purpose, and although rooms and 
equipment are far from adequate, the courses are rich in con teat 
and practical value. The courses in sewing and cooking required 
of all girls, are similar in organization to the best courses now 
taught. The girls electing the additional work in household arts, 
prepare and serve meals on a family basis, assist in the lunch 
rooms, and make garments of practical value. 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 515 

The High School: Grades 9 lo 12 

During the last three years the curriculum of the Richmond 
High School has been enriched and modified. A new course of 
study and program of studies was adopted May, 1916, supersed- 
ing the course adopted January, 1914. The new course makes 
departmental election possible and recognizes that similar pro- 
grams of work should not necessarily be followed by those who 
are going to college and those who are not going to college. Four 
curricula of study are suggested: College preparatory, industrial, 
domestic science and art, and commercial, the last three being 
divided into two types on the basis of college expectancy. A series 
of major and minor studies is proposed, but regardless of the 
departmental election, each pupil in the school must complete 

for graduation: 

« 

3 years of English 

1 year of American history 

1 half year of civics or economics 

1 year of music or drawing 

1 year of physical training 

3 years in some five-hour subject other than English 

2 years each in two five-hour subjects other than those chosen 
for the major three years elective work. 

The new course involves the addition of no new subjects or 
modifications of subject-matter or point of view in subjects now 
taught, but consists, in the main, of a re-arrangement of sub- 
jects into course and departmental combinations, permitting a 
greater degree of election and specialization. 

No vocational courses. — None of the work of the high school is 
on a vocational basis, interpreting 'Vocational" according to the 
rulings of the State Board of Education. This Board has defined a 
vocational course as one preparing specifically for a given vocation 
and requiring that one-half of the time of the pupil shall be 
spent in technical work and the other half in the related academic 
work. 

Method of reporting enrollment. — For purposes of classifying 
pupils enrolled in the high school, the traditional terms of Fresh- 
man, Sophomore, Junior and Senior do not appear on the school 
records, the new basis being the number of units of credit pupils 



516 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

have actually received. On the ''unit of credit basis," classifica- 
tion is as follows: 

Those having 1 to 7 units of credit 
Those having 8 to 15 units of credit 
Those having 16 to 23 units of credit 
Those having 24 to 32 units of credit 
This classsification is used in this report. Enrollment is re- 
ported as of the second semester 1916. 

Industrial Arts 

General organization and supervision. — A supervisor is m 
charge of all industrial courses in the high school and Garfield 
school, but the major portion of his time is spent in teaching 
high school shop and drawing classes. All industrial drawing 
courses are of a very high order, well taught and administered in 
rooms specially designed for the purpose. 

Purpose of courses. — It is very difficult to determine the spe- 
cific purposes of these courses in the Richmond High School from 
either the teachers' or pupils' point of view. Moreover, the in- 
dustrial aii/S teachers seem to agree that nothing would be gained 
by sharply defining the purposes of the courses. In conference, 
these teachers expressed the view that the courses as now organized 
give occupational information which is worth while, that they have 
wage-earning value, that they constitute a valuable preparation 
for future technical courses, that they have appreciative values in 
assisting pupils in understanding economic conditions and prob- 
lems and in selecting home furnishings, and further, that they are 
worth while as a part of a good general education, that they are 
instrumental in keeping pupils in school and in retaining and broad- 
ening the interests of boys already enrolled. 

In all probability, the one fact of most significance about this 
work in the Richmond High School is that courses were originally 
introduced not for any one or more of these specific reasons, but 
because it is customary to have such courses in well organized 
high schools in cities like Richmond. To some, the courses have 
unquestionably had wage-earning value. This is particularly 
true of the printing courses, as those who take these courses and 
later become apprentices are accredited hour for hour on their 
apprenticeship for the work done in the school. The courses 
probably are of worth to other pupils as preparation for technical 
college courses, and to others in stimulating their interest in school 
work. 



Chap. XXVIl] Presp:nt Provisions 517 

Required or elective. — All courses arc elertivc. Any number may 
be elected. 

Industrial arts curriculuni. — The combination of subjects com- 
prising the industrial arts curriculum is as follows: 

A. For those who will entsr Engineering or Polytechnic 
Schools. 

1. In meeting the general requirements for graduation, tha 
pupil must do the work outlined under the College Pre- 
paratory Curriculum, and elect shop work, mschanical 
drawing and allied courses. 

2. The following work is suggested: 
English, 3 years 

Algebra, 1^ years 

Geometiy, 1^ j^ears 

Physics, 1 year 

Chemistry, 1 year 

Latin or German 2 years 

American History, 1 year 

Civics or Economics, J year 

Shop Work and Drawing, 4 years 

Electives (chosen with consent of teacher advisor). 

B. For those who will not attend college. 

1. The pupil must meet the general requirements for 
graduation. 

2. Shop work, mechanical drawing, and allied courses 
should be emphasized. 

3. The following work, expressed in terms of general re- 
quirements for graduation is suggested : 

English, 3 years 

Shop Work and Drawing, 3 or 4 years 

Mathematics or Science 2 yeais 

History, Foreign Language, 2 3^ears 

Electives (chosen with consent of teacher advisor). 

Courses, time allotrnent and enrollment. — All courses are one 
semester in duration and meet five times in two weeks (three 
times one week and two times the next) for a sixt^^-five-minute 
period, except when otherwise noted. The general practice is to 
couple a drawing with a shop course, thus the student has one 
industrial arts recitation each day. 



518 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 



TABLE 32 

Number of Boys Taking Shop Courses, Having Each 
Number of Credit Hours 



COURSES 


1 to 7 
Credit 
Hours 


8 to 15 
Credit 
Hours 


16 to 23 
Credit 
Hours 


23 to 32 
Credit 
Hours 


Benchwork I (2 sections) 


21 

18 








Benchwnrk IT fS sections') 






3 


Carpen 
Pattern 


trv 






4 


ma.kinp- 


T 






7 
14 




TT 




2 
10 
26 


1 


Forge ^ 
Ma.chir 


>hop I. . . 




4 




" II 


1 
2 
5 


1 


e Shnr> T 






2 


Printing 

Mechanina.l Dra.-wincr T 


10 
12 
10 

2 


4 


4 . 






II.. 
III.. 
IV 






1 




10 
23 














V 




5 

16 

1 

1 






VI. . 




4 


2 




VII 




3 




' VIII . 






2 















Future work of hoys taking industrial courses. — One hundred and 
nineteen boys were enrolled in the second semester in the various 
industrial art courses. Of this number: 

79 expect to go to college 

23 do not expect to go to college 

17 are undecided about going to college 

The departmental choices for college "courses of those expect- 
ing to go to college are: 

32 some kind of engineering 
27 not decided 

4 industrial arts 

3 agriculture 

3 mathematics 

2 chemistry 

2 physical training 

1 each, military, physics, architecture, drafting, science. 



commerce and chemistry 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 519 

The twenty-three who are not going to college gave reasons as 
follows, for not taking the work: 

12 liked the work 
6 preparation for life work 
2 had to take something 
1 as an aid to get a good position 
1 to help on farm 
1 because course was easy 

Bench Woodwork and Carpentry 

Eqiiipinent. — The classes in bench woodwork and carpentry 
use a room 24x44 feet, with an equipment valued at about $1,225, 

This equipment includes : 
1 No. 50 Fay and Egan 36-inch band saw 
1 No. 187 Fay and Egan double mandrell saw table 
1 No. 254 Fay and Egan bench hand planer and joiner 
1 tool grinder 

10 double wood benches 

1 teacher's bench 

18 sets of tools for benchers 

2 cabinets for work 
Miscellaneous woodworking tools 

Courses. — Benchwork I is a course in joinery including mortise 
and tenon, rabbit and dado, half lap and dove tail. Application 
of these joints is made in projects of the pupils' selection. Instruc- 
tion is given concerning the proper use and care of tools. Talks 
are given on the use of various woods, board measure, stains, 
fillers and varnishes. Benchwork II is a continuation of Bench- 
work I and involves the construction of more difficult cabinet 
pieces and instruction about saw action and planing and joining. 
The class in carpentry was organized to take care of part of those 
who would have taken machine shop practice, had there been 
adequate facilities. Boys in this course do the comnmnity work of 
the school in making repairs and manufacturing furniture. They 
care for their own tools, operate power, rip and cut-off saws, 
band saw and hand joiner. Each boy must file one hand saw. 
They also are required to make drawings of work to be done, 
estimate the amount and cost of material required. All the boys 
taking this course are in the senior class, and none of them intend 
to be carpenters. 



520 Peovisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Pattern Making 

Equipment. — The pattern making classes are instructed in a 
room specially equipped for the purpose, and used only for these 
classes. The room is about 22x50 feet, well lighted and contains 
equipment valued at about $2,100. The equipment includes the 
following : 

16 wood turning lathes with self contained motors 
16 sets bench and turning tools 
1 demonstration bench 
1 cupboard 
1 tool case 

1 glue table 

2 dozen hand screws, saws, chisels, files, braces, etc. 

Courses.— Two pattern making courses are offered. Course I 
consists of the use of the bench tools which the student has not 
had in his previous woodworking courses; also the use of the 
turning lathe involving the correct use of the different turning 
tools and the different cuts, such as spindle, face plate, boring and 
chuck work and two center work. After the student has mastered 
these things reasonably well, a few simple patterns are made, 
involving such principles of pattern making as draft shrinkage, 
finish cores, etc. Course II involves the construction of different 
types of patterns. The principles of the trade taught, along with 
elements of design of mathematics. 

Forge Shop Work 

Equipment. — Forge shop classes meet in a specially equipped 
shop on the first floor, 30x65 feet. The equipment is valued at 
about $2,000. The equipment includes: 

20 Sturtevant Forges, connected with force draft and smoke 
removal conduits which are motor opei-ated 

2 motors, 10 h.p. — 15 li.p. 
20 anvils and blocks and hand tool 
eciuipment for 20 forg(\s 
1 spj'ing power hammer 
1 vertical spindle drill jDress 
1 demonstration forge 

An emery stand, a power punch and shear motor and line 
shaft for driving same; three benchers with lockers and vises. 

Courses. — Two forge shop courses are offered. Forge I includes 
the fundamentals such as drawing out, upsetting, binding, form- 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 521 

iiig, twisting and welding; also cfiro of firos and tools. Forge 11 
includes welding, tool making and brazing. 

(Mnr III no. Shop Work 

Equipment. — For the machine shop class the Board of Educa- 
tion has rented a small shop across the street from the high school. 
This shop is equipped with bench tools, drill press, lathes and 
sliaper and other small tools and machines. 

Courses. — According to the statement of the teacher, the pur- 
pose of the course is to give practical experience to those students 
who wish to directly enter the machinists' trade, or who wish to 
pursue technical courses in a higher school. The course includes 
work at bench, such as filing and chipping, and lathe work and 
work on shaper and drill press. It will be noted that attendance 
in this. course is limited to juniors and seniors, none of whom will 
probably become machinists. 

Printing 

Equipment. — The printing courses are conducted in a room 
23x31 feet, located on the first floor of the old high school building. 
The equipment, valued at about $1,900, includes: 

10x15 Gordon Job Press, Motors, 50 pounds 8 point Roman 

14x22 Colts Job Press, Motors, 25 pounds 6 point Roman 

26-inch C. & P. paper cutter 

Drying rack 

One imposing stone 

Wood furniture 

Metal furniture 

Leads and slugs 

Brass rule 

Three type cabinets 

200-pound 10 point body type Roman 

50 fonts job type 

1 ink cabinet 

1 Boston staple binder 

1 plow and press 

1 standing press 

1 lying press 

Galleys, sticks, tweezers, make-up rules, tables 

Course. — The purpose of this course is to teach the trade of 
printing, to the extent of making pupils mechanically proficient, 



522 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

so that should they desire, they could go on with the trade and 
would have a working knowledge which the regular apprentice 
does not possess; also to aid the English classes in spelling, punc- 
tuation and correct use of English. Ordinary job work, such as 
is encountered in the day's work of a regular shop is done. All 
phases of hand composition and press work is included. 

Mechanical Drawing 

Equipment. — Two rooms each 34x32 feet, are used for mechan- 
ical drawing, each having an equipment valued at about $325. 
The rooms are well lighted. Each equipment includes: 

1 filing case 

1 cupboard 
20 drawing desks 
20 sets drawing instruments 
20 sets T squares, triangles, scales and drawing boards 

1 teacher's desk 

1 blue print frame 

Courses. — Eight mechanical drawing courses are offered. 
Drawing I and II consists of geometric construction and ortho- 
graphic projections. Drawings of three views are made, involv- 
ing sections and intersections; many shop drawings are made of 
projects being constructed in other departments. Tracings and 
blue prints are also made. Drawing III includes orthographic 
projection and development of surfaces. DrawiriglV includes isome- 
tric and cabinet projection. Drawing V includes machine con- 
struction and parts. Drawing VI is a continuation of Drawing V, 
and deals with the drafting of cams, motion diagrams and gears. 
Drafting VII includes gears. Drafting VIII is architectural draw- 
ing, including conventional forms, details of window, door, porch 
and frame construction, also drafting set of house plans, including 
floor, elevation and roof plans. 

The limits of the industrial work. — The present courses are well 
taught, and the physical facilities including rooms and equip- 
ment are adequate. The lack of definiteness of purpose constitutes 
the most serious limitation of the present type of organization. 
The reader recognizes the organization as being typical of the 
usual general high school. Seniors are engaged in carpentering 
and machine shop work. Youths not going to college who may 
enter industrial pursuits are working in the same classes or pur- 
suing the same courses as those who plan to complete a college 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 523 

education. The needs of these groups cannot be met in the same 
course. For those who are taking industrial courses as a prepara- 
tion for wage-earning, radical reorganization is necessary in 
teaching staff, course content, organization, time schedule and 
equipment. 

Commercial Courses 

General organization and supervision. — The commercial courses 
are supervised by one of the male commercial teachers, who is 
head of the department. While the commercial work has not 
been organized on a departmental basis, a considerable number of 
pupils, how^ever, elect, during the third and fourth years, a suffi- 
cient number of courses, so that for these pupils, the commercial 
work constitutes a line of major interest and specific vocational 
education. The Avork for both boys and girls is identical. 

Purpose of courses. — While it may be fairly said that the Rich- 
mond industrial arts conrses are for general education, the com- 
mercial courses, in marked contrast, are for vocational education. 
They are more nearly vocational than any other work in the 
school. The vocational aim is noted not only by the content and 
organization of the courses themselves, but by the fact that the 
head of the depai'tment receives calls from local offices for work- 
ers, finds suitable positions for graduates and permits senior pupils 
to hold part-time positions receiving regular school credit for 
such work. Recommended graduates receive as beginners, 
between six and eight dollars weekly wage. 

Required or elective. — All courses are elective. Any number 
may be elected. Those who expect to receive the recommendation 
of the school for commercial positions are required to pursue all 
courses offered. 

The commercial curriculum. — The curriculum indicates the 
following combination of courses: 

A. For those interested in commercial subjects who expect 
to attend college. 

1. In meeting the general requirements of graduation, the 
pupil must do the work outlined under the college 
preparatory curriculum and elect as much commercial 
work as possible. 

B. For those expecting to take positions upon the completion 
of their high school course. 



524 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part TTT 



1. The pupil should complete the following commercial 
work, in meeting the requirements for graduation: 

Penmanship, J year 

Commercial Arithmetic, J year 

Bookkeeping, 2 years 

Stenography, 2 years 

Typewriting, 2 years 

Commercial Law, J year 

Salesmanship, J year 

Commercial English and Spelling, 1 year 

2. In general, pupils who have not completed the above com- 
mercial work, will not be recommended for positions. 

Course, time allotment and enrollment. — All courses, except 
wdien otherwise noted, are on a one semester basis, and meet 
five times each week for a 65-minute recitation period. 



TABLE 33 

Number of Boys and Girls Taking Courses, Having 
Each Number of Credit Hours , 



COURSES 


1 to 7 
Credit 
Hours 


8 to 15 
Credit 
Hours 


16 to 23 
Credit 
Hours 


24 to 32 
Credit 
Hours 




Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Bookkeeping- I 

]I 


1 




10 
1 


23 


5 
14 
14 

4 
14 

1 


4 

8 
11 

6 
13 

2 






2 

4 

1 
2 
7 
10 
1 
2 


1 


HI. 








Stenography I 






4 
2 


1 
1 




n.. .. 






7 


Ill 






8 


IV 










23 


Typewriting I 






7 
1 


1 


4 

10 


6 
17 


1 


II. 






4 


Ill 








Penmanship I 

Commercial arithmetic. 


2 




8 
21 

2 


6 
15 


3 

3 

12 


1 
10 


2 

1 

9 
5 
6 


3 
2 


Commercial Enghsh (2 
sections) . . 






9 


(Jommereial law 






9 


Salesmanship . . 




3 


9 






3 




! 









Chap. XXVII] 



Present Provisions 



w 

X 

H 

'^ 

o 

o 

PQ 

< 



o 

PQ o 



ii 



PP 



K 
P 
O 

o 

o 
« 
m 



O 



o 



o 



(N (M i> t^ ro --I 



.-I Oq (M 



i S.-§ 



5^ ^ ^ ^ 

H c^ c^ TO 



o o o 



S ^ o 



a; O' 

s s 

s s 

o o 



2 S 






520 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Future work of seniors now taking commercial courses. — Twen- 
ty-three girls and sixteen boys who have sufficient credits to grad- 
uate from the high school in June, were enrolled in one or more 
of the commercial courses in the last semester. A study of the 
individual reports made out by these pupils reveals the fact that 
of the total number: 

8 girls and 3 boys do not expect to go to college 

9 girls and 9 boys expect to go to college 

6 girls and 3 boys are undecided about going to college 

Commercial courses taken by those not going to college. — In all 
probability, the majority of those not going to college who are 
not in their senior year, and now taking commercial courses, will 
enter some line of commercial employment. It is of the utmost 
importance to find out the exact preparation of these pupils for 
this work. 

Summarizing the entire time spent by these girls and boys in 
commercial work during the four years high school course: 

1 boy and girls has taken 1 semester's work 
boys and 1 girl has taken 12 semesters' work 

boys and 4 girls have taken 13 semesters' work 

2 boys and 1 girl have taken 14 semesters' work 
boys and 1 girl has taken 16 semesters' work 
boys and 1 girl has taken 17 semesters' work 

It will be noted that the majority of these boys and girls not 
going to college have spent about one-half of their time during 
the four years' course, pursuing commercial subjects. 

Commercial courses taken by those going to college. — Nine boys 
and nine girls taking one or more commercial courses in their 
senior year in the high school, indicate that they are going to 
college. The number of semester commercial courses taken by 
these boys and girls is indicated in Table 35. 

Summarizing the entire term time spent by these boys in 
commercial work during the four years high school course, the 
majority have spent one-fourth of their time during the four 
years' course, pursuing commercial courses. 

It is interesting to note in connection with commercial work 
taken in high school, the courses which these girls expect to pursue 
in college. Four girls plan to major in music and these four have 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 



527 



TABLE 35 

Number of Semester Courses of Each Commercial 

Subject Taken by Nine Girls and Nine Boys 

Going to College 





Number of Semester Courses Taken 


COURSES 


4 Courses 


3 Courses 


2 Courses 


1 Course 




Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Boys 


Girls 


Stenography 


4 
4 


4 
4 














Tvpe^NTiting ... 


5 


3 

5 










Bookkeeping 


1 


2 






Commercial arithmetic. . . 






2 
3 

2 
1 


3 


Commercial, law 














6 


Commercial English 














4 


Penmanship 














6 


Salesmanship 














6 .. .. 




















taken respectively, 1, 13, 12 and 15 semester courses in commercial 
work. The two who will major in English have taken 6 and 8 
semester courses; the two undecided as to college courses have 
taken 3 and 13 courses, and the one who will major in art has taken 
13 commercial courses. 

There seems to be connection between the commercial courses 
taken in the high school and future courses which boys plan to 
take in college. Four boys who are undecided as to college courses 
have taken 2, 3, 14 and 15 semester courses respectively in com- 
mercial work. One each has decided to major in science, Enghsh, 
physical culture, engineering and journalism and these boys have 
taken respectively 9, 1, 1, 1, and 14 semester commercial courses. 



Stenography 

Courses. — Four stenographic courses are offered. The purpose 
of Course I is to thoroughly master the principles upon which the 
Gregg system of shorthand is based, paying . careful attention 
to all necessary rules found in the first nine lessons of the system. 
Course II includes the last eight lessons of the Gregg manual, 
paying close attention to fundamental rules and developing some 
phrasing. In Course III a certain number of letters are assigned 
for practice work, to be written and read in class. Some atten- 
tion is given to speed, but the emphasis is primarily upon accuracy. 



528 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

In Course IV regular assignments are made from Gregg Speed 
Practice for developing ease and speed. The texts used in these 
courses are Greggs' Manual, Greggs' Speed Practice and Eldreges' 
Speed Book. 

Typewriting 

Equipment.— The room for typewriting is 23x25 feet and con- 
tains an equipment valued at $1,250. 

15 Underwood typewriters 

10 Remington typewriters 

24 typewriter desks and chairs 

20 files and miscellaneous equipment 

Courses. — There are four typewriting courses. Course I is 
the beginning course and students learn correct position at 
machine, location of keys on keyboard, features of the machine, 
rules regarding use of numerals, spacing after punctuation marks 
and combination of letters. Course II involves study of the 
arrangement of business letters on the paper, how to make 
enclosures, how to direct envelopes and also how to copy from a 
rough draft. Course III includes the consideration of legal 
papers and the use of the tabulator. At the end of the semester's 
work, finger exercises are given. The text used is the Rational 
Typewriting. 

Bookkeeping 

Equipment. — The bookkeeping classes use a room 37x50 feet 
on the second floor of the high school building, specially designed 
for the work. The equipment is valued at about $1,000, and 
includes: 

56 desks and chairs 

1 set banking fixtures 

2 wall cases 
Miscellaneous equipment 

No adding machines, filing cases or systems arc included in the 
equipment. 

Courses. — Bookkeeping I is the beginning course and includes 
the fundamental principles of bookkeeping. Miners' text is used. 
Bookkeeping II includes business practice work which familiarizes 
students with common business forms, special column books and 
business customs. Miners' text is used. Bookkeeping III con- 
siders local business customs and wholesale accounting. Lyons' 
Wholesale Accounting is the text used. 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 529 

(loiHuiercial Arillitnetic 

Course. — The aim of the courpe in Commercial Arithmetic is 
to give the pupil a knowledge of the meaning; of accuracy in num- 
bers as well as the rules of arithmetic and their application. 
Short methods are used wherever possible. Rapid calculations 
and drills arc a feature of the course. 



,o in me 



rcial Law 



Course. — The purpose of the course is to enable the pupil to 
gain a knowledge of the laws that the business man is presumed to 
know, namely the laws that govern the making, operation and 
discharge of contracts, shipping, negotiable bills of exchange and 
promissory notes, and sale of property. The text used is Essentials 
of Commercial Law, by Whigam. 

Coinmcrcial English 

Course. — This course includes spelling, definition and use of 
words, principles of composition, review of grammar, letter writ- 
ing, including letters of application, recommendation, introduc- 
tion, buying, selling and friendly letters. The text used is Business 
English and Correspondence, by Davis and Lingham. 

Penmanship 

Course. — The purpose of the course in penmanship is to develop 
legible writers. The muscular movement is taught and attention 
is given to mastery of letter forms, slant and uniform spacing. 

Sales mans hip 

Course. — The course in salesmanship was offered this year for 
the first time, and is designed to include the underlying prin- 
ciples of salesmanship. The text used is Salesmanship and Busi- 
ness Efficiency, h}^ Knox. 

Part-Time Employment 

Pupils in the senior class are permitted and encouraged to take 
part-time employment for one-half of each day for about six 
weeks. Occasionally, employers pay a small fee for this work, but 
it is not part of the bargain. The instructors feel that this sort 
of employment is a valuable part of the business course, making 
possible some actual clerical work, bookkeeping or stenography. 
After returning from the job, the problems with which the worker 

34—5463 



530 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

was confronted are made the basis of helpful class discussions. 
The faculty does not supervise the part-time work of the pupils, or 
know exactl}' what pupils are doing. Employers may be requested 
to render a report about the part-time worker, but no regular pro- 
vision has as yet been made for this. 

Limitations of the cowmercial work. — The outstanding limita- 
tions of the present provisions are: Identical courses for boys and 
girls, the absence of organized contact between the department 
and commercial life, the absence of content courses in commerce, 
and the requirement of the completion of four years of work before 
the pupil is eligible for any sort of commercial position. 

Household Arts 

Hon^eholrl arts curriciihnn, — The new household arts curric- 
ulum is as follows : 

A. For those who will attend college. 

1. In meeting the general requirements for graduation, the 
pupil must do the work outlined under the college pre- 
parator}^ curriculum and elect Household Arts and allied 
courses. 

2. The follo^^dng work is suggested : 

English, 3 years 

Algebra, 1 year 

Plane Geometry, 1 year 

Domestic Science, 2 years 

Domestic Art, 2 years 

Latin or German, 2 years 

American History, 1 year 

Civics or Economics, J year 

Science, 2 yesivs 

Electives (chosen with consent of teacher advisor). 

B. For those who will not attend college. 

1 . The pupil must meet the general requirements for gradua- 
tion, emphasizing Household Arts and allied courses. 

2. The following work is suggested: 

English, 3 years (First Alajor) 

Household Arts 3 or 4 years (Second Major) 

Science 2 years (First Alinor) 

History, Mathematics, Foreign Language 

Commercial, 2 years (Second ^Nlinor) 

Electives (chosen with consent of teacher advisor) . 



Chap. XXVII] 



Present Provisions 



531 



General organization and supervision. — The courses in house- 
hold arts are supervised by a high school domestic science teacher, 
who spends the major portion of her time in teaching. Prior to 
the adoption of the new course of May, 1916, all high school girls 
were required to take two semesters work in either domestic 
science or domestic art, with the exception that girls who take all 
the commercial courses may be excused upon the consent of the 
principal, from the year's work in household arts. 

Required or elective. — All courses are elective, except as above 
noted. All the listed courses may be taken by a given pupil. 
Practically any course illustrated by the fact that in Cooking I, 
the beginning course, girls from each of the four years were 
enrolled. 

Courses, time allotment and enrollment. — All courses are of one 
semester duration, meeting five times weekly for a sixty-five 
minute period. 



TABLE 36 

Number of Girls Taking Household Arts Courses 
Having Each Number of Credit Hours 



COURSES 


1 to 7 
Credit 
Hours 


8 to 15 
Credit 
Hours 


16 to 23 
Credit 
Hours 


24 to 32 
Credit 
Hours 


Cooking 1 (2 sections) 

Cooking II (3 sections) 


12 
21 


2 
10 


2 
5 


1 


Cooking III (not given 2nd 
semester) 




Cooking IV 




2 
11 
15 

3 


2 
4 
5 


10 


Sewing I (2 sections) 

II (2 sections) 

" III 


12 
11 


2 

3 


IV ■ 








V 








10 













Future work of girls taking household arts courses. — A total of 
151 girls were enrolled in the second semester in the various House- 
hold Arts courses of these girls : 

76 expect to go to college 

29 did not expect to go to college 

46 are undecided about going to college 



532 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Those indicating that they are going to college, plan to make 
their college major subject, as follows: 

35 Undecided 

12 Household Arts 

4 Teaching 
11 Music 

3 English 

3 Art 

2 History 

2 Language 

1 Commercial Work 

1 Elocution 

1 Latin 

1 Physical Training 

As all girls were required to pursue two semester household arts 
courses, it cannot be concluded that the 151 elected this work on 
the basis of preference. 

Cooking Courses 

Equipment. — Rooms for cooking classes are located on the first 
floor of the high school, and designed specially for the depart- 
ment. 

The cooking laborator}^ is 30x34 feet, and contains an equip- 
ment valued at $1,000. Among the equipment are the following: 

1 kitchen range 
1 lefrigerator 

1 china cupboard 

3 supply cupboards 

24 individual cooking equipments and stoves 

4 sinks 

2 lavoratories 

2 supply tables 
China and miscellaneous equipment 

There is a kitchenette ll|xl2 feet, which contains the following 
equipment, valued at $125. 

1 I'ange 

1 kitchen cabinet 

1 zinc top table 

1 porcelain sink 

General kitchen equipment 



Chap. XXVTI] Present Provisions 533 

The dining room is 13Jx20 feet and contains the following 
equipment, valued at $250. 

1 china closet 

1 fumed oak dining table and six chairs 

1 serving table 

1 buffet 

1 complete set dishes, glasses and silver 

1 fibre rug, table and service linen 

The pantry is 10x4| feet, and contains the general equipment 
for the kitchen. 

Courses. — In course, Cooking II the principles of cookery are 
developed. Section I is devoted to experimental and applied 
cookery, including preparation of vegetables, fruits, cream 
soups, eggs, milk and milk products. The practical application of 
some principle is required each week in the home. One recitation 
a week is devoted to the relation of cookery to hygiene, including 
a study of respiration, digestion and circulation and food prin- 
ciples. Section 2 is a group of retarded students and little theory 
work is given. Markets and groceries are used as laboratories, 
for studying foods, and marketing. Food for the cafeteria is also 
prepared by this group. 

Cooking II is a continuation of Course I and includes experi- 
mental and applied cooking in the making of breads, quick breads 
and preparing meats and left overs. Practical home application is 
required. Relation of cookery to hygiene is included and involves 
study of bones and muscles, excretary organs, the nervous system 
and personal hygiene. Principles of serving and planning menus 
are developed by planning and serving meals within certain cost 
prices. In Cooking I and II, the text is ''Domestic Science" by 
P. S. Bailey. 

Cooking III involves preparation of food, advaneed and fancy 
cookery including cakes, cookies, pastry, salads, fish and deep 
fat cooking. 

Cooking IV includes cost and purchase of food, dietetics, 
invalid cookery, diseases, care and feeding of children and house- 
hold management. The text is ''Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in 
the Home," by W. H. Corn. 



•^34 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Sewing 

Equipment. — Sewing classes use a room on the first floor of the 
old high school, 23x27 feet, containing an equipment valued at 
about S500. The equipment includes the following: 

4 Singer sewing machines 
1 White sewing machine 

1 New Home sewing machine 

5 large cutting and sewing tables and chairs 
4 cupboards 

14 dressmakers' squares 

2 dozen rulers 
IJ dozen scissors 

Miscellaneous equipment 

There is also a fitting room 17x1 7 J feet, with an equipment 
valued at 1100. This includes: 

1 mirror 2jx4 feet 

1 dress stand 
4 wardrobes. 

2 cutting tables 
2 dress forms 

1 pressing board 
1 electric iron 
Miscellaneous equipment 

Courses. — Sewing I is designed to make the gii'l an intelligent 
consumer, to develop skill in construction and ability to appreciate 
a well made garment. The course covers a study of textiles, 
source of material and process of manufacture, hygiene in relation 
to underwear, sweat shop labor, and economics of the purchase of 
material. Projects are pincushion, sewing apron, drawers and 
shirts. The work includes hand sewing, machine sewing, draft- 
ing and cutting of patterns. No text is used. 

Sewing II includes a study of linen and wool; history of spin- 
ning, weaving, dyeing; tests for adulteration; study of relative 
values of hand and machine made undergarments; the meaning 
of the Consumers League and the Union Label. Pupils are required 
to keep note books and an expense account of home and school 
expenditures. Projects are night dress, middy, corset cover, shirt 
waist, household furnishings and laces. 

Sewing III, IV and V are advanced courses, continuing along 
the same general lines as previous courses. The textile study is 



Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 535 

continued and attention is given to design and suitability of ap- 
parel in relation to use and cost. Projects are cotton or wool 
skirt, cotton dress, silk waist and gi'aduation dress. 

The Night School 

General organization and administration. — ^^The night school is 
administered by the high school principal. The school term is 
divided into two semesters, falling this school year as follows: 

First semester, October 5, 1915, to December 15, 1915. 
Second semester, January 3, 1916, to March 1, 1916. 

During each semester the school was in session from 7:30 
a. m. to 9:30 p. m. The length of the period of recitation is ordin- 
arily the single hour. 

Total enrollment and cost. — There were enrolled in the first 
semester 224 men and 279 women, and in the second semester 174 
men and 212 women. Twenty-two instructors were employed each 
semester, and the total cost of instruction for the respective semes- 
ters was $970.50 and $731.00. 

Courses. — The courses given in the evening school of Rich- 
mond may be grouped under five general heads: Industrial, com- 
mercial, household arts, general and miscellaneous. 

Are the courses vocational? — In considering whether or not cer- 
tain courses are to be rated vocational, the course content and 
ages and occupations of students enrolled must be considered. 
According to the rulings of the State Board of Education, to receive 
state aid, attendance in trade extension evening courses must be 
restricted to those over 17 years of age and who are engaged by 
day in the trade which is the subject of the evening course. Even- 
ing courses in homemaking subjects may be attended by women 
wage-earners and housekeepers and still be rated as vocational. 

On this basis, none of the industrial courses for men may be 
rated as vocational, because they were attended by men of various 
occupations. In no case were there over five men following by day 
the trade in which instruction was given. The commercial courses 
do not come under the provisions of the state vocational law. 
All the household arts courses come under the provision of the 
law, and were administered so as to be subject to the state aid. 
None of the general or miscellaneous courses come under the 
provisions of the law. 



536 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 



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538 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 



Industrial Courses 

From Table 37 it will be noted that none of the industrial 
courses are organized on a trade extension basis, and that the 
usual low percentage of attendance of enrolled students pertains 
in Richmond. No industrial courses were organized on a short- 
unit basis. 

TABLE 38 

Night School Commercial Courses for Men and Women 





Typewi'iting 


Stenography 


Bookkeeping 


Number of classes . 


2 


1 


1 


Number of recita- 
tions held 


22 


22 


22 


Total number ad- 
mitted 


43 


31 


23 






Average number 
present 


27 


17 


14 


Attendance — 

1- 5 nights .... 


13 


10 





6-10 nights 


16 


4 


10 


11-15 nights. . . . 


12 


3 


5 


16-20 nights 


10 


7 


6 


21-22 nights 


2 


7 


2 


Occupations 


Unknown 8 
At home 4 
Clerks 10 
Bookkeepers 6 
Stenographers 6 
Bakers 2 
Dressmaker 1 
Laborers 4 
Teacher 1 
Piano Tuners 2 
Dairyman 1 


Clerks 3 
At home 2 
Laborers 4 
Dressmaker 1 
Teacher 1 
Piano Tuner 1 
Bookkeepers (f) 2 
Stenograplu^r(f) 1 
Dairyman 1 
Baker 1 
Unknown 14 


Clerks 3 
Laborers 2 
Teacher 1 
Bookkeepers 2 
Stenographers 2 
Milhner 1 
Salesman 1 
Dairyman 1 
Unknown 10 


Courses 


Individual work, 
Text "Ration- 
al Typing." 


First 9 lessons, 
Gregg's Manu- 
al. 


Individual work. 
Text, "Book- 




keeping, "Moore 
& Miner. 



Chap. XXVII] 



Present Provisions 



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Factory worker; 

Stenographer 

Bookkeeper 

Unknown 


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Chap. XXVII] Present Provisions 



541 



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542 Pkovisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Commercial Courses 

The evening commercial courses were attended by office 
workers, factory hands, and housewives, as noted from Table 38. 
The percentage of attendance averages about the same as in the 
industrial courses. 



Household Arls Courses 

The facts of enrollment, attendance and occupation of students 
are reported in Table 39. The course in serving was on a short- 
unit basis, and it is significant to note the high percentage of 
attendance for the six nights. 

General Courses 

The general night school courses in English, spelling, arith- 
metic and writing, appealed to a large number of Richmond men 
and women, as will be noted from Table 40. 

Miscellaneous Courses 

The miscellaneous courses include physical training, Spanish 
and art. Attendance in the physical training and Spanish courses 
is unusually low. These facts will be noted from Table 41. 



Chap. XXVII] 



Present Provisions 



543 



TABLE 41 

Night School Miscellaneous Courses for Men and 

Women 





Physical Training 
for Women 


Spanish 


Art 


Number of classes . 


3 


1 


1 


Number of recita- 
tions held 


22 


22 


22 


Total number en- 
rolled 


100 


19 


IS 


Average number 
present 


51 


7 


10 


Attendance— 

1- 5 nights. . . . 


14 


10 


6 


6-10 nights 


28 


1 


5 


11-15 nights. . . . 


36 


4 


1 


16-20 nights 


16 


2 


5 


21-22 nights.... 


4 


2 






Occupations ...... 


No information 
available 


Machinist 1 
Teacher 1 
(Jlerk 1 
Unknown 16 


At home 5 
Wheel stripers 2 
Printer 1 
Clerk 1 
Telephone work 1 
Machinist 1 
Unkuowu 7 


Courses 


Elementary and 
advanced ex- 
ercises. Polk 
dances and 
drills. 


Declensions. 
Conjugations. 
Simple reading. 
Pronunciation. 
"All Spanish 
Method." Hall. 


Still life. 
Designing, 
Home decora- 
tion. 





CHAPTER XXVIII 



SURVEY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, FOR SUBSEQUENT 
INVESTIGATIONS AND FOR LEGISLATION 

Recommendations for Education 
The Elementary Schools 

Industrial and fine arts courses. — The Survey Committee 
commends the Richmond schools for breaking away from the dis- 
ciphnary, art craft and busy work approaches in the purpose and 
organization of the courses in industrial arts for the elementary 
schools. The Committee concurs in the spirit, purpose and organi- 
zation of the course now being perfected, being in principle, an 
adaptation of the Speyer School Curriculum of Teachers' College, 
Columbia University. The broad foundation necessary for the 
appreciation and understanding of industrial and fine arts for all 
workers in the community, ''regardless of sex and future vocation," 
must be laid in the elementary school. This course, if adequately 
developed, will accomplish the purpose. 

Knowledge of primal industries essential. — That a common 
knowledge of the primal industries is required of all, "regardless of 
sex and future vocation," may be aptly illustrated in the field of 
textiles, by the findings of this Survey in its study of dry cleaning, 
laundry work, tailoring and dressmaking, mercantile selling and 
the work of the housewife. Those engaged in any phase of dry 
^cleaning and laundry work, must have a thorough working knowl- 
edge of textiles and a general knowledge of garment construction, 
ncluding the raw materials used, and dyeing and manufacturing 
processes. This same identical knowledge is needed by tailors 
and tailoresses, dressmakers and seamstresses. All salespersons in 
dry goods, general furnishings and drapery stores, where any kind 
of wearing apparel for men, women and children is sold, need the 
same information about raw materials, fabrics, dyes and garment 
construction in the daily work of making sales. The knowledge 
about textiles and garment construction which is essential and 
which has a wage value for cleaners, dressmakers and sales- 
persons in the course of their work, has a value of equal worth to 

(545) 
35—5463 



546 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

the housewife in purchasing, cleaning, laundrying and remodel- 
ing the clothing for the entire family. The same knowledge is 
equally vital for men in purchasing and caring for suits, shirts, 
underwear, neckties and other wearing apparel. 

It is not to be assumed that all phases of the technical informa- 
tion required in the field of textiles of other primal industries can 
be taught in the first six grades. It is sufficient to here teach the 
simple fundamentals, relating them in so far as possible to history, 
art, geography and literature. 

Adequate provisions urged. — The school authorities are urged 
to do all in their power to further the development of the indus- 
trial arts work by a sympathetic attitude, and by providing the 
necessary funds, reference books, materials and equipment. The 
Richmond schools should not assume that the Speyer Course in 
Industrial Art, adapted in some of its details for a particular school, 
should be copied in every minute detail in Richmond. Such 
changes should be made as seem essential to best meet local prob- 
lems and conditions. It has seemed wise in Richmond for the 
sixth grade girls to pursue the more intensive courses in sewing and 
cooking. If this practice seems best for the future, the boys also 
should be permitted, if they desire, to take the cooking course; 
but, in all probability, the needs of the boys can only be adequately 
met by some form of shop work. This will necessitate the equip- 
ping of a room in each of the elementary schools for shop work. 
A specially equipped room is needed in doing certain phases of the 
industrial work in all the elementary grades. This being so, the 
room should be in almost constant use. The equipment should 
include a few movable woodworking benches, chairs, tables, black- 
board, a few wood and metal working tools, and storage cabinets 
for materials used and work in process of construction. 

Platoo7i exyeriinent approved. — The Survey Committee heartily 
approves of the experiment proposed by the Superintendent of 
Schools, to organize one of the elementary schools on the platoon 
basis. The keeping of adequate records in the school organized on 
this basis, as well as in the other elementary schools, will make 
possible an evaluation of the two types of school organization. 

The Junior High School 

Junior High School commended. — The Survey Committee 
approves the proposal that the Garfield school be developed into 
a Junior High School, to include the pupils of the seventh, eighth 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 547 

and ninth grades. The inadequacies of the present building are 
fully realized by the Richmond Board of Education and the Super- 
intendent of Schools, and a new building in keeping with the char- 
acter of the city and the needs of the pupils should be built at 
once. The recommendations of the Survey Committee relative t(^ 
the school organization and lines of work adapted to Richmond 
needs, should receive careful attention in determining the size, 
arragement of floor space and equipment of the new building. 

Cottage plan commended. — The proposal of the Board of Educa- 
tion that one of the residences near the present site of the Garfield 
school, on property now owned by the school city, be retained and 
remodeled for the use of the household arts department, meets 
with hearty approval. 

Principles of Organiziation 

The following principles of organization and course outlines, 
are for the guidance of the Board of Education in developing the 
Junior High School. 

Organization. — The Junior High School embraces the three 
years of school life immediately following the sixth grade. Its 
work is made up in part, of required subjects, common to all 
pupils, and in part of elective subjects from which a full program 
may be made. Beyond the sixth grade, pupils require some differ- 
entiation in work to meet the varying demands of individual 
interests, aptitudes and economic conditions. This desirable differ- 
entiation can not be made under the unified elementary school, 
plan. All pupils are not ready at the beginning of the seventh 
grade for the full departmental organization and method of the 
usual high school. The Junior High School endeavors to organize 
the work of the seventh, eighth and ninth years, so that a gradual 
transition may be made. From the choice of a single elective sub- 
ject from a number offered in the first year, the pupil makes a 
gradual adjustment through an increasing amount of elective 
work in the second and third years, until he is fully prepared for 
the more highly differentiated courses of the Senior High School, 
organized on a life career basis. 

Entrance. — All pupils finishing the sixth grade may enter the 
Junior High School. Any pupils who have attained the age of 
thirteen or more years, at the opening of the fall session of school, 
and who have not completed the work of the sixth grade may be 
admitted to the Junior High School for full work, or in selected 



548 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

subjects at the discretion of the principals and teachers in the 
Junior High School and the elementary school last attended by 
the pupil. 

Required subjects. — The subjects that are required of all pupils 
as constants in the curriculum, should be those which are of 
fundamental, general value, regardless of the occupation to be 
followed. As well as providing some elements that make for prac- 
tical efficienc}^, they should also provide for the preservation of 
health, the exercise of the duties and privileges of citizenship, 
and the wise and wholesome use of leisure. 

Elective subjects. — Subjects offered as electives should be those 
which have appreciable identity with occupational activities, or 
with lines of interest leading to well-defined courses to which the}^ 
are fundamental. Electives may be so chosen as to group the work 
about a life career motive in any one of the larger occupational 
fields; the professional or liberal arts group, the commercial, 
the industrial, or the agricultural. While home making is not 
included as a separate occupational or vocational field, it is assumed 
as of universal significance for girls, and household arts should be 
required as a part of then^ program^ whatever their major line of 
occupational interest. 

Trying-out values of elective courses. — All courses derived prim- 
arily from occupational activities should be regarded, in part, as 
trying-out or finding courses, and should be utilized fully for 
their vocational guidance values. 

Vocational values of elective courses. — All courses derived from 
occupational activities should also be so developed as to have 
values directl}^ basic to the respective vocations. Whatever is 
taught should be so taught that nothing must be unlearned, and 
whatever skills are developed, should be the same in kind as those 
re(iuired in the respective vocations, though less in degree. 

Limitations upo7i changing courses. — While the testing of inter- 
ests and aptitudes is a fundamental function of the Junior High 
School, adjustments should not be made on the basis of mere whim 
or caprice. No pupil should be permitted to drop a course once 
begun, until the end of the unit or term, unless failure and inapt- 
itude are so marked as to indicate unquestioned waste of time. 

Modification of published curricula. — For individual pupils 
with immediate needs, not provided by the subjects as organized 
in the curricula, adjustments should be made to the full extent of 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 549 

administrative possiblitievS. The school exists for the pupil, not the 
pupil for the school. Flexibility and adaptability are the purpose 
and the virtue of the Junior High School plan of organization. 

New courses. — AVhenever any course not included among the 
electives is asked for bjva number sufficiently large to rhake a 
class, such course should be offered, unless it is administratively 
impossible to do so. 

Proynotion.- — Promotion should be by subjects, and failures in 
one subject or field should not be a cause for preventing progress 
in other subjects or fields. Poor work or failure in some subject, 
with good work in others, should be carefull}^ weighed as factors in 
the guidance given in the selection of work and in the vocational 
field chosen. 

A grade or room teacher or advisor. — While the Junior High 
School plan necessarily requires a large measure of departmental 
work, there should be an official, or grade, or room teacher; as 
advisor for each year, with general responsibility for the respec- 
tive grade group, to give it solidarity, to co-ordinate its activities, 
and somewhat to centrahze its supervision. All pupils in this 
period cannot adjust themselves fully to departmental organiza- 
tion. Co-ordination can not be left to any general plan, nor to 
even the most efficient principal, with duties as complex as those 
of the Junior High School. 

Co-operation in selecting electives. — A brief plan of the Junior 
High School and its work should be sent to the parents or guardian 
of each child in the sixth grade, several weeks before the end of the 
school year. With this should go a blank form for the child's 
choice of elective work, to be signed by himself and the parent or 
guardian, and to be approved by the teacher or principal of the 
school from which he comes, and finally by the Junior High School 
principal or the official or grade teacher for the first year of the 
Junior High School. If pupil and parent are at all doubtful, a 
conference should be suggested with the teachers. If the teach- 
ers do not agree with pupils and parents, a conference of pupil, 
parents, and teachers should be called by the principal. On the 
opening of school, in the fall following, the choice as shown on the 
card filed, should be followed, unless reasons of weight make a 
change desirable. The planning of each following year's work, 
before the close of the current year, should be advantageous to the 
school in organizing its resources, and to pupils and parents in 
anticipating the values of further school attendance. 



550 



Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 



The Courses of Study 



The arrangement of work is on the basis of six fifty-minute 
periods each day, with an additional thirty minutes daily of unas- 
signed time. 



First year — Seventh Grade 
Periods 



Required Subjects: per 
week 

English 5 

History 3 

Geography 4 

Arithmetic 4 

Industrial Arts, boys 4 

Household Arts, girls 4 

Fine Arts 2 

Music 2 

Physical Education and Hy- 
giene 2 



Periods 
Electives : per 

' week 

Latin 4 

French 4 

Spanish 4 

German 4 

Commercial Work 4 

Industrial Arts 4 

Household Arts 4 

Agriculture '■. 4 



Second Year- 
Periods 
Required Subjects: per 

week 

English 4 

History or Civics 3 

Elementary Science 4 

Industrial Arts, boys 4 

Household Arts, girls 4 

Music or Fine Arts 2 

Physical Education 2 

Study of Occupations 1 



-Eighth Grade 

Periods 
Electives : per 

week 

Latin ... 4 

French 4 

Spanish 4 

German 4 

Commercial Work 4 or 8 

Industrial Arts 4 or 8 

Household Arts 4 or 8 

Agriculture 4 or 8 

DraAving and Design 4 or 8 

INIusic 2 or 4 

Mathematics 4 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 551 

Third Year— Ninth Grade 

Periods Periods 

Required Subjects: per Electives: per 

week week 

English 4 Latin 4 

History or Civics 4 French 4 

Geography or Science 4 Spanish 4 

Physical Education and Hy- German 4 

giene 2 Commercial Woi'k 4 or 8 

Study of Occupations 1 Industrial Arts 4 or 8 

Household Arts 4 or 8 

Agriculture 4 or 8 

Drawing and Design 4 or 8 

Music 2 or 4 

Mathematics 4 

Science 4 

Character of Work in the Several Subjects 

History .—The history of the first year of the Junior High 
School, will depend much upon the work of the preceding grades. 
If in these, there has been a considerable amount of general his- 
tory selected with reference to the important steps in human 
progress, then the work on the first year may well be given to 
American history. The second year may divide the work between 
American history and civics, and the third year give its time to 
some large unit of European history, or to carefully selected units 
in general history. If the work in the grades has been confined to 
American history, then the first year may be given to general his- 
tory or a large unit of European history, to be followed by other 
units in the second year, giving one half of the third year to American 
history and civics, dwelling primarily upon the economic develop- 
ment of the United States and the social aTid politicaJ changes 
resulting from this economic development. 

Much historical material should be inc^luded in tlie pj'actical 
courses, dealing with their evolution and the social changes result- 
ing from this evolution. 

Civics. — While the civic problems connected with each occupa- 
tion should be studied in its setting, a definite course in civics for 
one-half year'should be given in the second or third year. The 
everyday problems of community life and the place of the citizen 
in sharing effectively these problems, local, state and national, 



552 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

should be emphasized, rather than the mere machinery of govern- 
ment. 

Geography. — The geography of the first year should deal largely 
with the economic interdependence of peoples, as determined by 
controls of location, climate, transportation, physical resources 
and labor resources. The selection of regions for study may depend 
much upon the work of earlier grades. Whatever the selection, 
the approach should be through the life of the immediate environ- 
ment, then the larger environment as affected by conditions found 
in other parts of the world. Much geography should be included 
in the courses in practical arts and in history. In the third year, 
if geography is offered for a half-year or a year, the work may be 
physical geography in its economic bearings, or intensive indus- 
trial and commercial geography of the United States and its 
most important foreign trade relationships. 

Science. — The elementary science of the second year may be 
made up of a study of the more important biological and physical 
problems, growing out of the work in practical arts, agriculture 
and the everyday environment. The work may be organized on a 
project basis or as short units. Each project or unit should be 
carried far enough to secure an understanding or knowledge of 
some biological or physical principle, as it is observed in further 
application. Laboratory apparatus and experimentation should 
be subordinated to a minimum. The environment, with its prob- 
lems in the growth and care of plant and animal life, and in the 
use of physical principles in tools, machines and devices all about, 
should be the source of problems, materials and illustrations. 

In the third year, a more systematic course in some one or two 
divisions of biological or physical science may be offered, but 
even here, the approach should be through problems of the environ- 
ment which illustrate a need for the pri"nciples studied. While all 
vvork should be approached from situations having immediate, 
appreciable problems, it should be carried to a point which makes 
the information, principle, attitude, or habit, sufficiently clear and 
thoi'ough through its development and application, to make it 
permanently significant as well as immediately usable. 

Mathematics. — In the required course of the first year, the 
work should be largely practical or economic arithmetic — an 
application of processes to the solution of life problems in measure- 
ment of quantity and value. Many, indeed, most of the problems, 
may grow out of the work in practical arts, particularly as these 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 553 

are studied from the standpoint of the consumer. The technical 
applications of mathematics in the constructive work in the 
practical and commercial arts, may be developed either in direct 
relationship as parts of these courses, or in parallel courses in 
units of a quarter or half-year. Shop mathematics, household 
accounting, and the arithmetic of marketing; are examples of pos- 
sible supplementary courses. For the liberal arts students, 
coui'ses in elementary algebra and plane geometry should be 
offered as electives. The appropriate sociahzing of these courses 
is a desirable endeavor in adapting them to the Junior High School 
pupil. 

Industrial arts. — For the required courses, an organization of 
short units in much variety should be provided, offering oppor- 
timity for participation in all typical lines of industrial work for 
acquaintance, the development of interest, and the testing of 
capacities and aptitudes. Units of projects in woodworking, sheet 
metal, founding, forging, machining, electrical construction, con- 
crete construction, printing and perhaps some others should be 
included. Among the elective courses, more intensive courses, each 
covering one or more half-years, should be provided, the work to 
enter much more into the spirit and methods of industrial pro- 
duction. 

Household arts. — The required work may offer more variety 
and be organized in shorter units than that of the elective courses. 
In the required courses, some work in foods and cookery, textiles 
and clothing, household furnishings, marketing, household 
accounts, interior design and decoration, house planning, house- 
hold sanitation, laundrying and general housewifery should be 
included. In the elective courses, each unit may well cover at 
least a full half year's work. More emphasis upon training in 
technique should be placed upon the elective courses than upon 
the required units. 

Fine arts and drawing. — Much of the work should grow out of 
the problems arising in the courses in the practical arts. All 
general principles should be approached through real motives call- 
ing for their use, and should be made general in their meaning by 
their further use in real problems requiring application, although 
a definite place for drill work in the development of technique may 
])e required as part of the work. In the elective courses, units of 
one-half year or more may be devoted to special divisions of design, 
as furniture design, metal working design, constume design, com- 



554 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

mercial design, and such other forms as occupational demands 
require. There may also be courses developed in the general 
principles of design, if demands arise for these. In the Junior High 
School, however, principles and applications should not be much 
separated. 

Provision for elementary mechanical drawing should be made 
either in direct relationship to the practical courses requiring its 
usage, or in supplementary courses in appropriate units. 

Cominercial work. — The courses in commercial work should 
include a variety of units as large as the usual demands for various 
kinds of commercial employment. Not merely typewriting and 
stenography, but bookkeeping, accounting, filing systems, office 
practice, commercial forms, mercantile traffic, elementary com- 
mercial law, penmanship, and such other forms of work as are rep- 
resented in the commercial world, should be included. Strong 
supplementary work in industrial and commercial geography and 
history should be offered. Care should be taken to avoid the too 
early development of specialized commercial technique, which 
might lead to premature entrance upon occupation. 

Agriculture. — Such courses should be developed as the local 
situation suggests, keeping in mind the general aims and ends 
as determined by the best agricultural authorities of the state and 
the Department of Agriculture of the federal government. 

Study of occupations. — One period each week devoted to a 
definite study of the varieties of occupations open to young peo- 
ple, the capacities and training required in each, the opportuni- 
ties for advancement, the standards of life of the workers in each, 
the hazards in each, and various other questions which will lay 
before the pupil a basis for thought in the selection of his life work, 
may be made of very great value as a factor in the vocational and 
educational guidance of pupils. 

The Senior High School 

Principles of Organization 

Types of vocational education needed. — Through the detailed 
occupational analysis of the principal lines of employment in 
Richmond, and by means of conferences with groups of employers 
and employees, the need has been clearly discovered for specific 
day vocational education, of less than college grade, for industrial, 
commercial, agricultural and household employment. In addition 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 555 

to the need for vocational education of less than college grade, 
indicated by this Survey, facts of school history showing the num- 
ber of youths who enter college from the Richmond schools, indi- 
cate the need for preparatory education of a secondary grade, for 
young people whose specific vocational education for the pro- 
fessions will occur in the university or college. 

May a single school he adequate? — These facts occasion this 
question of primal importance: ^'Can the needs of the college 
preparatory group requiring the major portion of time in a study 
of liberal arts, and the needs of the group requiring vocational 
education of less than college grade, in industry, commerce, agri- 
culture and household arts, be adequately met in the same school?" 
Adequately meeting the needs of both groups means that the high 
school will have to become a vocational school in the broadest 
and best sense of the term: For the college preparatory group — 
a preparatory school offering the best possible preparatory courses 
for vocations requiring a college education; and for the other 
groups a vocational school, offering the best possible preparatory 
courses for occupations which do not require a college education. 

The democratic trend in Richmond. — If the Richmond high 
school had been a distinctively classical institution throughout the 
years, it would be almost impossible for the school now to become 
democratic enough to meet the demands of both groups. Fortun- 
ately, however, the high school, particularly in the last few years, 
has seriously attempted to prepare boys and girls for wage earn- 
ing as well as for college. This is indicated, in part, by the archi- 
tecture of the building; by the splendid provisions for household 
arts work, and for commercial and industrial work; and, in part, 
by the evolution of the school curriculum, and the broadening 
attitude of the teachers regarding what education is worth while. 

The new high school course of study adopted in May, 1916, 
places the entire school on a departmental and almost vocational 
basis. The school, of its own accord and by its own process of 
evolution, has thus become, in principle, what the Survey has 
indicated should occur in best meeting the needs of youths of 
Richmond. An extension and more liberal application of the prin- 
ciples to which the school is already committed, will permit the 
realization of the committee recommendations with but slight 
adaptation. 

Type of school recommended. — With the development of the 
Junior High School, the student body of the Senior High School 



556 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

will include those enrolled in the tenth, eleventh and twelfth 
years, as well as the students pursuing the various vocational 
courses, who may not be classified upon the year basis. It is 
recommended that the Senior High School be organized on a 
strictly life career basis, and that all work be either directly pre- 
paratory for other schools and courses, or immediately vocational. 
This will mean the elimination of all general industrial, commercial 
and household arts courses, and the organization of specific voca- 
tional courses in these and other fields. How this program may be 
carried out is indicated in the following paragraphs. 

Principles of Organization 

Organization. — The Senior High School embraces the three 
years of school life immediately following the ninth grade. Its 
work is made up of units of subject-matter necessary for prepara- 
tion for the professions and college entrance, hereafter termed 
' 'liberal arts work," and the units of subject-matter necessary 
for the best possible preparation for productive wage earning in 
industry, commerce, agriculture and household employment. 
With the completion of the work of the Junior High School as 
organized according to the recommendations outlined, the work 
of all students in the Senior High School must be clearly differ- 
entiated on the basis of vocational choice, individual interests and 
economic conditions. Most pupils are now ready to prepare 
intensely for the life career. 

Entrance. — All pupils finishing the Junior High School may 
enter the Senior High School. Pupils who have attained the age 
of sixteen or more j^ears at the opening of the fall session of school, 
and who have not completed the work of the Junior High School, 
may be admitted to the Senior High School for full work or in 
selected subjects at the discretion of the principal and teachers of 
the Senior and Junior High Schools. 

All youths over fourteen years of age, who can with profit 
pursue the various vocational courses proposed, may be admitted 
to the respective courses. 

Required subjects. — The only subjects required of those in the 
liberal arts group, are those specified as lequired liy the specific 
college or college department, for which the pupil is preparin^g;. 
The required subjects for those in the various vocational groups 
are the technical and related academic units agreed upon by the 
various advisory committees and the Vocational Division of the 



Chap. XXVIII] ComiMIttee Recommendations 557 

State Department of Public Instruction, as essential for vocational 
efficiency. Physical training and music should be required of all 
students. For all girls in the school, at least one year's work in the 
essentials of homemaking, which can be taught in the secondary 
period, is required. 

Elective subjects. — For the liberal arts group, after provision has 
been made in the program for the required subjects, all other 
courses may be elected upon the basis of the students' interests and 
capacities. 

Changing enrollment in courses and departments. — The testing of 
interests and aptitudes is one of the primal functions of the 
Junior High School, and it is supposed that most pupils, upon com- 
pleting the work outlined for this period, will have rather well 
defined vocational choices. Doubtless for some pupils, however, 
the period of adjustment will not have been completed upon 
entering the Senior High School. For such pupils, necessary 
shifting from course to course must be possible. 

Organization of vocational courses. — ^All vocational courses 
proposed are to be organized on the basis of principles adopted by 
the Vocational Division of the State Department of Public Instruc- 
tion. While the Survey has indicated the immediate need for 
certain day vocational courses, the school must be constantly on 
the alert to discover needs, and to adapt itself to all types of 
pupils requiring any phase of vocational instruction. For each 
vocational course offered, an advisory committee composed of 
men from the vocation and the schools, should be formed. The 
teacher must not be a theorist, but one skilled in the art, craft, 
science or commercial branch, which he proposes to teach. All 
vocational courses are to be so organized that a pupil having one, 
two or three years in which to remain in school, can spend the first, 
second and third' year in such a way as to be of most immediate 
and future profit. 

Adininistration of vocational courses. — Vocational courses and 
departments should be directed and supervised according to a 
scheme worked out jointly with the Richmond Board of Education 
and the Vocational Division of the State Department of Public 
Instruction. 

The Courses of Study 

Considering the varying standards involved in college entrance 
requirements, and the specific preparation for wage-earning effi- 



lyFyS Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

ciency in the industrial, commercial, agricultural and household 
employment fields, it is unwise and impossible to outline in detail 
either the liberal arts or vocational courses. The following state- 
ments and outlines are to be considered as suggestions, indicat- 
ing the possible method of organization. 

Liberal arts group. — As the entrance requirements of colleges 
vary so greatly, it is advisable that the student make up his mind 
about the college which he wishes to enter, as soon as possible. 

The full three years' course for those in this group may be 
made up wholly from the studies below enumerated, or in part 
from those there enumerated, in combination with subjects from 
the vocational groups. 



EngHsh 


Mechanical Drawing 


Chemistry 


Mathematics 


Economics 


Household Arts 


Latin 


Botany 


Physical Training 


Germail 


Zoology 


Orchestra 


History 


Physics 


Chorus Practice 


Civics 


Physiography 


Fine Arts 



Vocational industrial group. — The Survey Committee does not 
concur with the principle and accepted practice that the general 
industrial arts courses now taught in the high schools are valuable 
as a preparation for engineering and other technical courses. The 
general industrial courses recommended for the Junior High School 
will adequately meet the need of the prospective engineer for tool 
process work. In his college preparatory period, the future 
engineer should spend much of his time developing abstract think- 
ing ability derived from the appropriate study of mathematics 
and the physical sciences. 

There is an immediate need for trade preparatory vocational 
courses in printing, patternmaking, work of machinists, foremen, 
moulders, draughtsmen and trade dressmaking. These courses, 
oiganized on a strictly vocational basis, should take the place of 
the present general industrial courses. 

Preparatory work for other trades not enumerated should be 
offered as soon as the need can be ascertained. The course for 
each trade consists of one-half of each day in trade manipulation 
work, and the other half in related drawing, academic, science and 
occupational studies. 

Vocational commercial group. — The Survey Committee recom- 
mends that commercial courses be differentiated for boys and 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 559 

girls; that, in addition to the courses now offered, provision be 
made for mercantile traffic and transportation, mercantile sales 
and general office practice; that the work in stenog;raphy and type- 
writing be more intensive, covering a shorter period of time, and 
that the present bookkeeping courses be considerably shortened 
for all except those who expect to become expert accountants and 
cost estimators. The committee commends the present practice 
of arranging part-time office employment for commercial students. 

Courses for Boys Courses for Girls 

Stenography Stenography 

Typewriting Typewriting 

Bookkeeping . Bookkeeping 

Accountancy Commercial Arithmetic 

Commercial Arithmetic Penmanship 

Office Procedure Mercantile Sales 

Penmanship Vocational Information 

Mercantile Traffic 
Transportation 
Mercantile Sales 
Industrial History and Eco- 
nomics 
Vocational Information 

Vocational agricultural group. — If a group of students of suffi- 
cient size desire work in vocational agriculture the necessary 
courses should be offered. In view of the findings of the Survey, 
the agricultural work should be along the line of general farming, 
horticulture and fforiculture, providing for practical work, labora- 
tory work, related science and academic work, and electives. 

The projected plan for school and home gardening work for 
Senior High School pupils described in Chapter XXVI, ''Home 
and School Gardening,'' is an organic part of the vocational agri- 
cultural department here recommended. 

Household arts group. — The Survey Committee recommends 
that provision be made for the preparatory courses for prospec- 
tive graduate and practical nurses, indicated in Chapter XXII, 
"The Graduate, Practical and Home Nurse," that the present 
"general sewing courses" be modified to constitute trade prepara- 
tion for seamstresses and dressmakers (this recommendation is 
made, because the best preparation for the trade is also the best 
preparation for the housewife and consumer) ; that specific pro- 



560 Proaisions and Recommendations [Part III 

vision be made for study of all the phases of the work of the^ house- 
wife outlined in the study of the Housewife of this Survey, includ- 
ing marketing, house planning, health preservation, sanitation and 
care of children and the sick. 

Household emyloyment group. — In keeping with the. recom- 
mendation of the Survey Committee reported at the close of Chap- 
ter XXIII, ''Household Service," the Senior High School should 
offer preparatory courses for household and institutional services 
as soon as employers and employed reach a just and workable 
decision about hours of work, remuneration and education needed 
for entrance, proficiency and promotion. 

If there is a group of girls in the Senior High School desiring 
to become practical nurses, the preparatory courses in cooking, 
scisnce, physiology, and care of the sick should be offered, as 
indicated at the close of Chapter XXII ''The Graduate, Practical 
and Home Nurse." 



The Night School 

Th3 Richmond night school has been earnestly seeking to 
meet the educational needs of men and women in all types of 
employment in the city. The school has discovered the need for 
general courses in reading, writing and arithmetic, recreation, 
play, music and art, as well as for vocational courses related to 
industrial, commercial, household and agricultural occupations. 
The general courses mentioned, as well as the courses in recrea- 
tion, music and art, should be continued and supplemented as 
needs arise. 

The night school director is to be commended for his splendid 
system of cost accounting and record keeping. 

Principles of Organization 

Administration. — For each industrial, commercial and house- 
hold vocational course offered, the standard principles of organi- 
zation adopted by the State Board of Education should be followed. 
An advisory committee should be formed for each course, 
attendance should be limited to those over seventeen years of age, 
who work by day in the occupation which is the subject for evening 
instruction, and the class should be taught by one skilled in all the 
various phases of the- occupation, from both a theoretical and a 
practical standpoint. 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 561 

Centralization and decentralization. — At present, all evening 
classes meet in the high school building. This practice should 
continue for courses in industry and commerce, where the spec- 
ialized equipment of the high school is needed. Courses for house- 
wives and practical nurses, in homemaking and nursing subjects, 
and courses in reading, English, spelling, etc., open to' all adults, 
should be offered in those parts of the city most accessible to those 
desirous of pursuing the courses. 

Semester and short unit courses. — To date, all courses have been 
offered on either a one or two semester basis, with the usual high 
percentage of absence and mortality. Many of the trade exten- 
sion courses recommended, should be organized on a short unit 
basis; for example, applied electricity for employers m automobile 
factories, where three units are recommended: 1, wiring; 2, 
batteries; and 3, ignition. General courses in reading, speUing, 
etc., might well be administered on a semester unit basis. 

University co-operation. — For the trade extension courses 
recommended in industry and commerce, which will have to be 
conducted by the extension divisions of the State Universities, 
the Richmond Board of Education should co-operate by provid- 
ing necessary rooms, equipment, light and janitor service. 

The courses recommended. — The detailed recommendations for 
night school courses are reported at the conclusion of each occupa- 
tion analysis in Part II, ''Occupational Information." For the 
reader's convenience, however, a list of the proper courses fol- 
lows in the subsequent paragraphs: 



Industrial Courses 

Automobile factory employees 

Wiring : Dash Instruments 
Batteries 
Lights 
Ignition 

Storage battery : 

Battery theory 

Charging 

Care 

Use in ignition 

Use in lighting 

Use in gear shifting 

36—5463 



562 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Ignition : 

Types 

Installation 

Magneto 

Battery 
Distributors 

Metal machine operators 

Machine operating (all types of machines used in ordinary 

shops) 
Blue print reading 
Trade mathematics 

Machinists 

Machine shop practice 
Draughting 
Blue print reading 
Trade mathematics 

Tool makers and blacksmiths 
Metallurgy 

Hardening, tempering and grinding 
Blue print reading 

Sheet metal workers 
Drafting 
Lay out 
Trade mathematics 

Moulders and foremen 

Sand mixtures 

Metallurgy 

New foundry methods 

Wood machine operators 

Woods I 

Plan reading 
Machine operating 
Tool filing and grinding 

Cabinet makers, henchmen and assemblers 
Plan reading 
Wood finishing 
Drafting 

Trade mathematics 
Cabinet shop practice 

Printers' apprentices 
Composing 

Makeup and imposition 
Design 
Type faces 
Spelling 
Punctuation 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 563 

Building contractors 

Material estimating 

Plan reading 

Drafting 

Building construction 

Contracts 

Building specifications 

Carpenters 

Stair and roof construction 
Plan reading 
Architectural drafting 
Trade mathematics 
Material estimating 

Plumbers 

Material estimating 
Building construction 
Trade physics and chemistry 
Laws and building codes • 

Ladies tailors, dressmakers and seamstresses 
Tailoring 
Textiles 
Designing 
Cutting 
Pattern drafting 

Dry cleaners, proprietors and spotters 

(University Extension Courses) 

Textiles 

Dyes 

Garment construction 

Trade chemistry 

Laundry proprietors and washers 

(University Extension Courses) 

Textiles 

Dyes . 

Chemistry: waters, soaps and starches 

Commercial^ Courses 

Telephone operators 

Recreation — High School Gymnasium 

Office workers 

Advanced bookkeeping 

Accountancy 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Business English 

Business arithmetic 

Office procedure and practice 



564 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

Salespersons 

(Grouped on basis of goo-ds sold) 
Study of stock 
Manufacturing processes 
Store procedure 
Economics 

World's producing and selling markets 

Price setting 

Wholesaling and retailing 

Store proprietors 

(Grouped on basis of goods sold) 

(University Extension Course) 

Business methods 

Advertising 

Accountancy 

Practical economics 

Mercantile traffic 

Shipping clerks, receiving clerks, traffic men, store and factory 
proprietors 
(University Extension Course) 
Mercantile traffic 

Housewives 

Nursing 

Care and feeding of children 

Dietetics 

Home furnishing 

Sanitation 

Community housekeeping 

Practical nurses 
Nursing 

Care and feeding of children 
Dietetics 
Sanitation 

Recommendations for Subsequent Investigations 

Of the great number of social and educational problems raised 
by the Survey which require further investigation, those of most 
immediate importance are: Practical nursing, mercantile traffic, 
mercantile sales, and the public library. 

Practical nursing. — The Survey of Richmond revealed the fact 
that there are a large number of untrained women engaged in nurs- 
ing, taking all types of cases, from the simplest to the most 
critical. The work of the physician and trained nurse is, in part, 
under social control. The next step is to bring the practical nurse 
within the jurisdiction of the state, indicating the required train- 



Chap. XXVIII] Committee Recommendations 565 

ing, form and registration and types of cases which she may 
attend. This problem is referred to the State Board of Health, 
with the earnest request that studies of practical nursing, similar 
to the one here made, be undertaken in other parts of Indiana, 
to determine the scope of the problem, the necessary legislation, 
and the educational facilities needed to place this work on a 
socially sound basis. 

Mercantile traffic. — The Richmond Survey of mercantile traffic 
indicates a large and important field offering promising commercial 
employment, about which little is known. The Richmond study 
considers primarily steam railroad traffic positions. Detailed 
studies should be made of the work of express companies, post 
office, interurban railroads, auto express lines, and merchants' 
delivery systems, in order that courses may be developed in com- 
mercial departments, looking toward traffic employment. 

The whole field of passenger traffic should also be adequately 
studied. 

Mercantile sales. — The real problems in training for salesman- 
ship have been obscured by vaporous books on personality and 
conduct, and by the acceptance of the department store unit as 
the basis for study and training. There are three questions of 
outstanding importance. 

1. What preparatory courses in salesmanship may be given 
youths (boys as well as girls) prior to their employment as sales- 
persons? Answering this question will involve a much more 
detailed study of specialty stores than has been made to date, from 
the standpoint of constant and variable factors, knowledge of 
stock, store procedure, etc. 

2. On what basis may salespersons be grouped for evening 
continuation courses in salesmanship? 

3. What training is necessary for the sales agent, the broker, 
the insurance agent, the real estate salesman and the traveling 
salesman? Answering this question will involve detailed analysis 
of the respective lines of work. Considering the large number of 
men employed in these lines, such an investigation should prove 
most fruitful. 

The public library. — The public library may be one of the most 
potent factors in vocational education for adults. There is a 
singular dirth of reading matter — trade journals, periodicals and 
books relative to occupations in the Richmond Library. Workers 
in Richmond have indicated to the Survey staff that they have 



566 Provisions and Recommendations [Part III 

repeatedly searched for literature in the library which would throw 
Hght on some new trade process or machine. Workers themselves, 
are eagerly seeking occupational Hterature. This should be sup- 
phed. Then, too, the library has a direct responsibility for sup- 
plying the literature descriptive of new processes, methods, etc., 
of which factory and store proprietors and employers are as yet 
ignorant. The library may be a forerunner of progress. With the 
examples of the splendid results achieved by the Cleveland and 
Newark library in supplying occupational information to all types 
of workers, we are assured that the library has a large and impor- 
tant function in this field. Just how this function may be best 
discharged is as yet undetermined. A detailed study should be 
made of this important problem. 

Recommendations for Legislation 

As a result of the findings about the character and problems of 
juvenile employment, the Survey Committee recommends to the 
State Legislature the following additions to the Indiana Vocational 
Law: 

1. That the establishment of part-time classes be mandatory 
upon all Boards of Education of towns of 5,000 population and 
over. 

2. That attendance of all boys and girls under 18 years of 
age, who have left school and entered any type of profitable 
employment, be required for at least five hours each week during 
the regular school year. 

3. That in addition to the provisions for part-time education 
complementary to daily employment, part-time education be 
also provided through continuation schools for all youthful work- 
ers who are at work in juvenile employment, regardless of whether 
it is complementary to the daily employment. 

The committee also recommends the following amendment to 
the Child Labor Laws: 

That working permits be required for all types of employment 
for all youths under sixteen years of age, including those engaged 
in farm work, any form of domestic or personal service, or any 
other employment. 



PART FOUR 
METHODS OF THE SURVEY 



(567) 



CHAPTER XXIX 



METHODS OF THE SURVEY AND FORMS USED 

The general purpose, plan, and organization of the Survey 
has been set forth in Chapter I, '^The Survey." In this chapter 
some forms and blanks used are reproduced, and such com- 
ments are appended as may be necessary to convey to the reader 
the general methods used in gathering and classifying data. 
Only the more important forms are reproduced, but interested 
readers may obtain copies of those not reproduced by address- 
ing R. J. Leonard, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. 

Occupations and Number Employed 

The occupational census. — The first preliminary data relative 
to occupations which are required are an enumeration of the prin- 
cipal lines of industry and commerce and the number of workers 
employed in each. The United States census is the usual source 
for such data. The census, however, does not report these facts 
for cities the size of Richmond. The first step in the Survey was, 
therefore, the taking of the occupational census. 

For this purpose two blanks were used, one for reporting the 
occupations of all employees and the other for reporting the 
work of boys and girls under seventeen years of age, and the 
opportunities for part-time employment. The list of employers 
was prepared from the telephone directory and included all 
employers in the city — professional, commercial, trade, transporta- 
tion, agricultural and industrial. Three days before these blanks 
were mailed a circular letter was sent to all employers by the 
Commercial Club. This letter here follows, after which follow 
the census blanks: 

March 6, 1916. 
To Proprietors and Managers of Establishments, 

Richmond, Indiana. 
Dear Sir: 

The Commercial Club of Richmond and the Richmond Board 
of Education have been instrumental in perfecting plans for the 
Vocational Education Survey of the City. This Survey is now in 

(569) 
37—5463 



570 Methods or the Survey [Part IV 

progress and is being conducted by a corps of expert workers who 
are making a careful study of all phases of commercial, industrial 
and domestic employment in Richmond. 

The success of the Survey depends upon the earnest co- 
operation of proprietors of stores, shops and factories as well as those 
employed in the various occupations in Richmond. You are urged 
to fill out promptly and carefully all blanks sent you by the Sur- 
vey, and to extend a hearty welcome to members of the Survey 
Staff when they visit your establishment to study the requirements 
of various occupations. 

The findings of the Survey will be used by the Board of Educa- 
tion in determining the types of day and evening vocational courses 
best adapted to the needs of Richmond. All information given will 
be considered confidential and will be used only for educational 
purposes. 

Very truly yours, 

Geo. H. Knollenberg, 

R. L. Kelly, 

S. E. Smith, 

H. R. Robinson, 

W. Z. Carr, 

Jonas Gaar, 

Dw^GHT E. Young. 

Committee on Education. 



Chap. XXIX] Methods of Forms Used 



571 



RICHMOND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION INQUIRY 

(To be filled out by Employers, Managers or Superintendents) 

The facts recorded will be considered confidential and will be used only in determining what provision should 
be made for vocational education in the Richmond schools. The findings of the survey will be reported so as not 
to reveal operations of individual employers. 

Please fill out these blanks as soon as possible and return in enclosed addressed envelope, to R. J. LEONARD, 
Masonic Building, Richmond, Indiana. 

Record occupations which apply to your establishment so that this list will inclade all on your pay roll, March 
1, 1916. 

Name of establishment Street and Number 

Line of Commodities Carried or Manufactured 



Name of Person Furnishing Information . 
The Establishment Is Open- 



Week DaysFrom To. 

Saturdays From To . 

Sundays From To. 

The Rush Season is From To . 



Part 1. Information About Positions 



Occupations of All 


No. on Pay Roll March 
1, 1916 


Occur ations of All 
Employees 


No. on Pav Roll March 
1, 1916 


Employees 


Total 


Men 
Boys 


Women 
Girls 


Total 


Men 
Boys 


Women 
Girls 


























































































































































































































































































































































572 



Methods of the Survey 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL INQUIRY 

Richmond, Indiana 

(To be filled in by ike Employees, Managers or Swperintendeuh) 



[Part IV 



Name of Establishment . 



. Street and Number . 



Part 2. Work of Boys and Girls Not in School Under 17 Years of Age 

Number on Pay Roll, March 1. 1916. 



NAMES 


HOME ADDRESSES 


EXACT WORK 


























Boys 






















































Girls 

























Part 3. Opportunities for Part-Time Employment for Boys and 

Girls in School 

Are there any opportunities in your establishment for work before and after school and in vacation for boys? 

For eirls? 



NAME EXACT WORK TO BE DONE 


HOURS REQUIRED 


NO. EMPLOYED AT 
PRESENT 


BEFORE OR AFTER SCHOOL 


Before 
School 


After 
School 


Saturday 


Vacation 


Boys 


Girls 























































































Is it difficult for you to obtain boys and girls for part-time work? 

Would you desire the co-operation of the schools in obtaining boys and girls for part-time work? 
Do you find that part-time workers become valued regular employees? 



Remarks. 



Chap. XXTX] Methods and Forms Used 573 

Type Studies 

All occupational analyses were made upon the basis of type 
studies in those fields where many establishments or workers were 
represented. Thus, in the automobile industry, no attempt was 
made to carefully analyze the processes in the four plants. A 
detailed and careful analysis was made in one plant and the 
descriptions thus obtained were referred to the other plants for 
verification and additions. Each field worker was provided with 
a loose leaf notebook for recording facts obtained by conference, 
observation or questioning. As a guide in making observations 
and directing questions each field worker was provided with a 
schedule, of which several types are here reproduced. 

Schedule for Industrial and Commercial Type Studies 

I. Organization of establishment 

1. Enumeration of departments 

2. Enumeration of occupations 

3. Establishment routine and general facts 

IT. Analysis of occupations (by departments) 

1. What the worker does 

General description of work 

Materials handled 

Machines; names; set up; operate; repairs (adjust) 

Range of work 

Receiving orders — reporting work done 

2. Mental and physical requirements 

Height, weight, strength, discrimination (ability) 

3. General knowledge required for entrance, for efficiency, 

for promotion 
General education desired 
Elementary school; high school 

4. Common deficiencies of workers 
Educational and personal 

5. Special knowledge required 

6. Skill required 

How much prerequisite technical education 

7. Can special knowledge or skill be obtained on job 
By specific instruction Peripd of apprenticeship 



'4 AIetiiods of the Survey [Part IV 

8. Promotion 

Lines of promotion 

Factors conditioning promotion 

Experience, education, personalitv 

9. Source of workers 

By promoting employees Advertising 
From other establishments Direct application 
Personal recommendation 

10. ^Method of selection 

Interview, test, trial, examination 

11. Seasonableness or overtime 

Number of weeks idle When Summer half holiday 
Number of hours overtime When Payment 
Vacation period: Payment Extra help When 
needed 

12. Working conditions 

Sit or stand Dangers from machines 

Temperature and ventilation Dangers from gas 

Space — sanitation 

Peculiar strains: phj^sical and mental 

Light conditions: artificial and day 

13. Wages and earnings 

Schedule for Dressmaking Type Study 

I. Organization of establishment 

1. Name and address 

2. Workers employed and occupation of each 

3. Sewing done at own home, home of employer, or $hop 

II. Description of work 

1. Kinds of garments made 

Shopping 

Designing; drafting of patterns; cutting; fitting; 

draping; finishing 
Alterations done; making over 
Machines used and tools 
Managing business 

2. Mental, phj^sical and personal requirements 

3. General education required Desired 



Chap. XXIX] Methods and Forms Used 575 

4. In what respect does the employer feel she or her help- 

ers are deficient 

5. Special knowledge required Desired (Textiles, prices, 

patterns) 

6. Special skill required 

7. Can special knowledge or skill be obtained on job 

Apprenticeship Lengtli of time Specify special 
courses taken 

8. Promotion Another position Increased business, 

increased pay 

9. Source of workers (employees only) Promotion Adver- 

tisement Application Recommendation 

10. How selected (for employees only) 

11. Working hours 

Week day from to 

Saturday from to 

Busy season weeks idle 1915 

12. Working conditions 

Special strains Light Artificial and day Ventilation 

13. Wages or approximate yearly earnings 

Schedule for Housewife Type Study 

I. Composition of household 

1. Name Address 

2. Number in family Sex and ages under 18 

3. House, apartment, rent, buying, own. Number of 

rooms Number of stories Number of apartments 
in building 

4. Do you keep a maid Do you entertain much Outside 

activities as clubs, church work, etc. 
0. Occupation and place of employment of wage earners 
of family. Husband, sons, daughters, housewife, 
herself, by boarders, roomers, sewing, baking, 
laundry work, etc. 

II. Housing 

1- Selection of neighborhood. Smoke, dust, character of 
neighborhood, altitude, drainage, lack of con- 
gestion, near school and work 

Selection of house, stone, brick, light 

House in plan, good, bad 



576 Methods of the Survey [Part IV 

2. Furnishings Bouglit all at once or occasionally 

Bought for whole house or one room 
What color scheme is desired downstairs; upstairs 
How is color suited to location of room 
Basis of selecting draperies Furniture, paper, pic- 
tures (beauty, style, color, utility, harmony) 

3. Sanitation Is drainage good If not, why 

Modern plumbing 

How is house kept free from ants, moths, mice, bed 
bugs, water bugs, cockroaches, etc 

What disinfectants are used for toilet, sink, etc. 

Do you read meter Is garbage disposal satisfac- 
tory 

4. Ventilation 

How is air in house kept fresh Day, night 

5. What is heating system Good points, bad points 

Moisture secured 
How much attention is required What fuel 
What is used for cooking 

6. Lighting W^hy was system selected Is service satis- 

factory 

III. Food 

1. Prepared foods used Bakery goods, breakfast foods 

canned fruits and vegetables, pickles 

2. How is balanced diet secured Illustrate by menu 

3. Buying Local, downtown, mail, order, what is bought 

in quantity, who selects, personal, phone, other 
How far ahead; cash or charge account 
Do you keep a refrigerator Plenty of storage space 

4. How much canning and preserving is done Fruits, 

vegetables, pickles, jellies, etc. 

5. Gardening, poultry 
G. How learned 

IV. Clothing 

1. Amount, and kind bought ready made 

2. Amount and kind made by members of family Seam- 

stress Dressmaker 

3. Amount of mending; remodeling 

4. Amount of millinery and fancy work 

5. Seasonal care of clothing 



Chap. XXIX] Methods and Forms Used 577 

6. Method of learning sewing Distinguishing fabrics 

7. Further training desired 

V. Care and Training of Children 

1. Feeding infants and other children. Milk Special 

foods Modification of milk Sterilization of bot- 
tle Adapting feeding to growth of child Instruc- 
tion in personal hygiene 

2. Clothing Style Material Amount needed 

3. Study and application of kindergarten methods and 

child psychology 

4. Assistance in school work School visiting 

5. Teaching children anything other than housework 

6. Housework. taught girl Boy Trace progress 

7. Courses desired 

VI. Home nursing 

1. How much actual nursing is done 

. 2. Knowledge of invaUd cookery 

3. Use of disinfectants, antiseptics 

4. First-aid measures 

5. Detection of contagious diseases 

6. General care of patient Bed room, ventilation, bath- 

ing, medicine, taking tempei-ature 

7. What home remedies, patent remedies 

VII. Household management Accounting 

1. Hours of each day occupied by daily work Sweep- 

ing, dusting, care of children 
Special work for each day, washing, etc. 

2. How far ahead are meals planned When 

Number of courses, dinner hour 
How far ahead is buying done 

3. Laundry work Method used, sanitation 

Methods of removing stains, spots 
Help employed 

4. House cleaning Time of year, length of time, help 

employed 

5. Labor saving devices used in housework 

6. Who has charge of money spending Method of 

meeting household expenses e. g., A regular 
allowance 



578 Methods of the Survey [Part IV 

7. Is there a separate budget made What is any appor- 

tionment for food, clothing, rent, etc. 

8. How do you keep account of money spent Regular 

books kept 
VIII. Education of housewife 

1. Extent of general education. Where obtained 

2. Special courses- taken. Where obtained 

3. Helps used Cookbooks, magazines 

4. What course, in domestic work would be most helpful 

5. What would be most convenient 

Schedule for Type Study of Practical Nursing 
Physician's Blank (Practical Nurse) 

I. Identification 

1. Name of nurse Address 

2. Name of doctor Address 
II. Nature of Work 

1. Type of cases taken Obstetrical Surgical Old peo- 

ple Diseases (in detail) 

2. Care of patient 

Cooking for patient What types of special diet 
Care of room Cleaning Ventilation Disinfec- 
tants 
Bathing Giving medicine Taking temperature 
General care of patient Antiseptics Care of bed 

Bandaging 
What occasions for knowledge of first-aid measures 

3. How much assistance from members of family or others 

4. What other work besides nursing is done on a "case" 

General housework Cooking for family Sewing 

III. Physical, mental and personal requirements 

IV. General education required Why 

General education desired Why 
V. Deficiencies of nurse 

1. General education 

2. Specdal knowledge of the work (specify in detail- 

cookery, care of room, care of patient) 

3. Skill 

VI. Special knowledge required 

1. Cookery Dietetics 

2. Care of sick room Ventilation Disinfectants 



Chap.' XXIX] Methods and Forms Used 579 

3. General care of patient Bed, bathing, medicine, 

taking temperature, bandaging, antiseptics 

4. First-aid measures Emergency measures 

5. Medical terms 

0. Physiology Anatomy Ii3^gi(Mie 

VII. Skill required 

1. Cooking 

2. General care of room 

3. General care of patient 

VIII. How is knowledge and skill acquired 

1. Experience at home 

2. Experience on job 

3. Instruction from doctor 

4. Length of time required 

IX. Promotion 

1. To better wages 

2. To more frequent work 

X. Source of workers 

1. Application Advertisment Recommendation 

2. By doctor By family 

XI. How selected Trial 

XII. Working hours and wages 

1. What time for rest Hours per day 

2. Seasonablencss of w^ork 

3. Wages 

XIII. Working conditions 

1. Inconveniences 

2. Special strains 

3. Special dangers 

XIV. Educational inferences 

1. Should there be training in nursing in high school 

2. Of what should such work consist 

3. Should there be lectures and demonstrations on 

nursing in evening school 

4. Could a high school graduate take up practical 

nursing immediately 



580 Methods of the Sukvey [Part IV 

Employees Blank (Practical Nurse) 

I. Identification 

1. Name of nurse Address 

2. Name of employer Address 

3. Number in family - ' 

II. Nature of work 

1. Type of case 

2. Care of patient 

Cooking for patient What types of special diet 
Care of room Cleaning, ventilation, disinfectants, 

bathing, giving medicine, taking temperature 
General care of patient Antiseptics, care of bed, 

bandaging 
What occasions for knowledge of first-aid measures 

3. How much assistance from members of family or 

others 

4. What other work besides nursing is done on a ''case?" 

III. Physical, mental and personal requirements 

IV. General education required Why 

General education desired Why 

V. Deficiencies of nurse 

1. General education 

2. Specific knowledge of the work (specify in detail cook- 

ery, care of room, care of patient) 

3. Skill 

VI. Special knowledge required 

1. Cookery Dietetics 

2. Care of sick room Ventilation Disinfectants 

3. General care of patient Bed, bathing, medicine, 

taking temperature, bandaging, antiseptics 

4. First-aid measures Emergency measures 

5. Medical terms 

6. Physiology, anatomy, hygiene 

VII. Skill required 

1. Cooking 

2. General care of room 

3. General care of patient 



Chap. XXIX] Methods and Forms Used 581 

VIII. How is knowledge and skill acquired 

1. Experience at home 

2. Experience on job 

3. Instruction from doctor 

4. Length of time required 

IX. Promotion 

1. To better wage 

2. To more frequent work 
X. Source of workers 

1. AppUcation Advertisement Recommendation 

2. By doctor By family 

XL How selected Trial 

XII. Working hours and wages 

1. What time for rest Hours per day 

2. Seasonableness of work 

3. Wages 

XIIL Working conditions 

1. Inconveniences 

2. Special strains 

3. Special dangers 

Nurses Blank (Practical Nurse) 

I. Identification 

1. Name Address 

2. Sex Age Single Married WidoAved 

3. Place of birth 

4. Name of employers 

5. Names of doctors worked with 

11. Nature of work 

1. Type of cases taken Obstetrical Surgical 
Old people Diseases (in detail) 

2. Care of patient 

Cooking for patient What types of special diet 
Care of room Cleaning, ventilation, disinfectants, 

bathing, giving medicine, taking temperature 
General care of patient Antiseptics, care of bed, 

bandaging 
What occasions for knowledge of first-aid measures 



582 Methods of. the Survey [Part IV 

3. What assistance from members of family or others 

4. What other work besides nursing is done on a ''case" 

General housework, cooking for family, sewing 

III. Methods of learning nursing 

1. Experience at home What home experiences contri- 

buted to knowledge 

2. Experience on the job 

3. Instruction from doctor on the case 

4. Special school courses 

5. Books, magazines, etc. 

6. What special courses desired When 

IV. General education of nurse 

1. Grade reached in school in Richmond Elsewhere (a) 

Age 

2. What education is necessar}^ Desirable 

3. How old 

V. AVorking hours and wages 

1. Hours per day Per night Hours for rest 

2. Number of cases 1915 

3. Number of weeks idle 1915 Busy seasons 

4. Wages Per hour Per case Per week 

\l. Working conditions 

1. Amount of night and daj' work 

2. Living conditions Room; size, light, heat 

3. Conveniences; modern plumbing, etc. 

4. What special strains 

5. What dangers to health 

Srhcdulc for Type Study of Domestic Service and Day Work 

I. Gom]:>osition of household 

1 . Name and address of employer 

2. Number in family Sex and age under 18 

3. What other help employed 

4. Name, address, date, color, nationality 

IT. Analysis of occupations 

1. What the worker does 
Independently 

Supervised or helped by others 
^Machines used 



Chap. XXIX] Methods and Forms Used 583 

2. Physical, mental and personal requirements 

Height, weight, strength, judgment, executive, 
attitude toward work, honesty 

3. General education required 

General education desired 

4. Common deficiencies of workers 

Educational, personal, deficiencies of skill 

5. Special knowledge required 

Marketing, dietetics, textiles, household manage- 
ment, care of children 

6. Skill required 

Cooking, cleaning, sewing, care of children 

7. Can special skill be obtained on job 

Specific instruction 

How long does it take an experienced worker to 

learn the work; an inexperienced Method of 

teaching 

8. Promotion 

How far possible in establishment Of what does it 
consist 

Responsbility Wage 

How far obtained by changing job Factors con- 
ditioning promotion Will increased efficiency 
raise wages 

9. Source of workers 

Promotion, ads, recommendation, application 

10. Method of selection 

Interview, trial, test 

11. Working hours 

Amount and occasion overtime work, company time 

of arrival and time of leaving 
Payment for overtime work 
Seasonableness of work, as house cleaning, moving, 

sickness, canning 
Hours off 

12. Working conditions and living accommodations 

Convenience and labor saving devices 
Light, ventilation, sit or stand 

Provisions for eating, whether with family or alone 
Room; size, heat, light and furnishings, own room; 
social opportunities 

13. Wages 

Include room and board, clothes, etc. 



584 



Methods of the Survey 



[Part IV 





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38—5463 



586 Methods of the Survey [Part IV 

Cost of" Vegetables for Family for One Year 

Information given by 

Street No 

Number of persons in family 

Average daily cost of fresh vegetables . . . 

Average daily cost of canned vegetables . 

What part of fresh vegetables are purchased of grocers 

What part purchased at the farmers' market 

What part purchased of huckster selling at your home 

Average daily cost of berries including strawberries, blackberries, 
currants, etc., during the season local berries are on the 
market 

Average daily cost of berries including strawberries, blackberries, 
currants, etc., during the season that imported berries are 
sold 

How much is spent in one year for canned berries 

Organization of Data 

Each field worker took rough notes concerning each of the 
points indicated in the various type study schedules and upon 
returning to the office, dictated a complete and detailed report of 
the day's work. These reports were typed in duplicate and filed in 
folders prepared for each occupational study. From these work- 
sheets a preliminary draft of each report was made. These 
prehminary reports were submitted to the various Conference 
Committees, after which they were re-edited and re-submitted, 
and then they were considered and approved by the Local and 
General Survey Committee^. 



INDEX 



A 

AGRICULTURE IMPLEMENT MANUFACTURING, page 

babbitt metal worker 90 

blacksmith 89 

ensilage cutters 85 

erector, assembler and tester 93 

facts common to all workers 86 

foreman of erectors and testers 92 

foundry 89 

machine shop 89 

painters 94 

woodworking operators 88 

foundry workers 90 

hay balers 85 

machine operator 89 

machinist 89 

mechanical expert 87 

occupations and number employed 85 

painter 94 

pattern maker 90 

processes 81 

sheet metal liner 90 

Survey Committee Recommendations 95 

threshers ■, 81 

tinner. . 91 

tool maker 89 

Avood machine operators. . 88 

AUTO^IOBILE FENDERS, 

manufacture of 107 

dippers and enamelers 108 

sheet metal Avorkers 107 

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY, 

Survey Committee Recommendations 51, 52 

AUTOMOBILES, 

assembling 40 

final 43 

first 42 

classifying parts , 42 

development 39 

electrical equipment 43 

growth of manufacture 39 

(587) 



588 Index 

AUTOMOBILES— Coniinwed. page 

inspection of parts 42 

new models 42 

occupations and number employed in manufacturing 44 

painting. 43 

repair of 104 

stages in manufacturing 40 

testing 42, 43 

Aalue of output 40 

woodworking 43 

AUTOMOBILE WORKERS, 

See Railroad Repair vShops. 

blacksmith 51 

educational requirements 44 

electrician 50 

final assembler 50 

first assembler 45 

hazards and character of work 45 

machine operator 51 

mental and physical requirements 44 

painter 47 

tester 51 

upholsterer 48 

woodworker 45 



B 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, 

See Building Trades. 

BUILDING TRADES, 

bricklayer 183 

carpenter 182 

contractor 181 

decorator 185 

electric wireman ." 184 

facts common to all A\'orkers 180 

hoisting engineer 18'^ 

laborers 1^ 

lather 185 

occupations and number employed 1^^ 

painter 185 

paper hanger 1^^ 

plasterer 18^ 

plumber 188 

sheet metal worker 18-^ 

steam fitter 188 



Index 589 

BUILDING TRADES— Continued. page 

stone cutter and mason 189 

structural iron worker 189 

Survey Committee Recommendations 191 

C 
CABINET MAKERS, 

assemblers 144 

henchman 144 

foreman cabinet 147 

finishing department 144 

machine operators 138 

veneer 148 

gluers 142 

natm'e of employment 147 

veneer workers 149 

wood machine operators 138 

CABINET MAKING, 

furniture and kitchen cabinets 136 

CABINET MAKING AND ALLIED TRADES. 

See Musical Instruments. 
Survey Committee Recomendations 162 

CAR REPAIR SHOPS, 

See Railroad Repair Shops. 
car repairman and helpers 98 

CASKET MAKERS, 

See Cabinet Makers. 

CASKETS, 

manufacture of 136 

coverer and trimmer 160 

COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT, 

review of Richmond 273 

COMMERCIAL EMPLOYMENT: OPTICE SERVICE, 

See Office Employees. 

D 
DELIVERY SERVICE, 

driver 363 

errand boj^ 363 

facts common to all workers 361 

motor car operator ""• • 362 

number engaged in 360 



590 Index 

DEPARTMENT STORE, 

See Retail Stores. page 

buyer 329 

executive , 329 

facts common to all Avorkers 327 

salespersons 330 

E|OMESTIC SERVANTS, 

cook in private familj^ 456 

facts common to all workers 451 

housemaid in institution 457 

kitchen maid in institution 457 

maid in private family 455 

occupation and number employed 450 

Survey Committee Recommendations 457 

DRY CLEANING, 

deliveryman 253 

facts common to all workers 243 

hat cleaner 254 

occupations and number employed 243 

office girl 245 

presser 251 

proprietor or manager 244 

spotter 250 

Survey Committee Recommendations 255 

the cleaner 246 

E 
EXPRESS COMPANY, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 

F 
FIRE ESCAPES, 

manufacture of 104 

FOUNDRIES, 

See Metal Industries. 

core makers 105 

cupola tenders 107, 127 

laborers 106, 128 

moulders and helpers 107 

pattern makers 106 

FREIGHT, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 

FREIGHT CLASSIFICATION, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 



Index 591 

FURNITURE, 

See Cabinet Making. page 

maniifaeture of 136 

occupations and number employed 136 

G 
GASOLINE TANKS, 

manufaetm-e of 107 

GLOVE MANUFACTURING, 

See Glove Workers. 

product and characteristics 196 

GLOVE WORKERS, 

die cutter 211 

former 227 

glove stock girl 228 

leather cutting foreman ' 211 

packer 228 

turner 226 

GREENHOUSE APPARATUS, 

manufacture of 103 

GROCERY SALESMEN, 

facts common to all workers 313 

H 

HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENING, 

garden promotion of recent years 475 

plan of organization , 495 

summarj^ and conclusion 489 

Survey Committee Recommendations 500 

ten elementary schools ...../. 476 

vacant lot and back yard gardens 478 

HOUSEHOLD EMPLOYMENT, 

constant factors in the work 405 

continuation com-ses 425 

duties of the housewife 406 

housewife and public health 417 

knowledge required for 405 

seasonableness of work 405 

special knowledge and skill required 414 

Survey Committee Recommendations 426 

the housewife 405 

variable factors in the work 420 



592 Index 

HOUSEHOLD SERVICE, 

See Domestic Servants. page 

I 
INTERURBAN RAILROAD, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 

J 
JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT, 

factory oeeupations 462 

glove making occupations 462 

number under seventeen years of age employed 464 

offices 462 

part-time complementary education 465 

part-time education laws 466 

stores 462 

Sui'vey Committee Recommendations. 468 

L 

LADIES TAILORING AND DRESSMAKING, ^ 

dressmaker 235 

facts common to all workers 234 

occupations and number employed 234 

seamstress 237 

Survey Committee Recommendations 238 

LAUNDRY WORKERS, 

deliveryman 271 

facts common to all workers 258 

foreman 260 

hand ironer 270, 271 

machine ironer 266-270 

marker and sorter 261 

occupations and number employed 258 

office worker 260 

starcher 265 

Survey Committee Recommendations 272 

washerman 263 

LAWN MOWER MANUFACTURING, 

assembler 76 

box maker 78 

construction routine 67 

di-ill press operator 75 

facing and milling machine operator 75 

facts common to all workers 71 

foreman assembhng 75 

machine shop 73 

forge worker 75 

former 75 



Index 593 

LAWN MOWER MANIWACTVRI'NG— Continued. page 

grinder - 74 

inspector 78 

machinist. 74 

occupations and number employed . 70 

painter 76 

dipper 77 

padder 76 

stenciler 77 

striper 76 

pattern maker 73 

punch press operator 7.5 

reamer operator 75 

Survey Committee Recommendations 7S 

tool maker. 74 

M 

MACHINE TOOL MANUFACTURING, 

See Metal Industries. 

draftsmen 101 

machinists 101 

apprentices 101 

operators 101 

tool makers 101 

MANUFACTURERS, 

See Metal Imdustrieb. 

MERCANTILE DELIVERY, 

See Delivery Service. 

JNIERCANTILE SALES, 

See Retail Stores; Retail Salesmen. 

Survey Committee Recommendations 368 

MERCANTILE TRAFFIC, 

consumer 281 

deliveryman '. 298 

manufacturer 280 

occupations and number employed 283 

rate clerk 295 

retail merchant 279 

shipping clerk 291 

Survey Committee Recommendations 305 

trafiS.c man 284 



594 iNDfix 

METAL INDUSTRIES, page 

assembler 122 

auto repairman . 112 

blacksmith 120 

core makers 126 

machine operator 114 

machinist and helper HI 

moulders 124 

pattern maker 124 

sheet metal workers 123 

Survey Committee Recommendations 128 

tool maker 119 

]MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, 

action finishers 154 

fly finishers 156 

key makers 151 

manufacture of 131 

miscellaneous occupations 158 

music roll cutters 159 

phonographs -. 134 

pianos 133 

N 
NURSE, 

courses for practical nurse 447 

graduate nurse 437 

high school courses 445 

home nurse 440 

junior nurse 439 

practical nurse 433 

registration bureau 444 

Survey Committee Recommendations 448 

training of 443 


OFFICE EMPLOYEES, 

bookkeeper ; 391 

cashier • 394 

clerk 397 

cost clerk 398 

occupations and number employed in various offices 386, 387 

stenographer 388 

Survey Committee Recommendations 403 

training for office service 400 



PARCEL POST, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 



Index 595 

PIANOS, 

See Musical Instruments. page 

PRINTERS, 

apprentices 169 

compositors 168 

PRINTING TRADES, 

bindery operator 174 

characteristics of 163 

cutting machine operator 174 

facts common to all workers 167 

foreman compositor 167 

press 170 

occupations and number employed 165 

press feeder 173 

pressman 170, 171 

apprentice 173 

Survey Committee Recommendations 175 



R 

RAILROAD REPAIR SHOPS, 

assistant shop clerk 98 

blacksmith 98, 120 

boiler inspector 98 

boiler maker 98, 116 

carpenter 118 

car repairman 117 

electrician 98 

engineer 98 

fii-eman 98 

foreman engine house 93, 116 

head hostler 98 

head machinist 98 

hostler 98 

inspector 98 

laborer 98, 118 

machinist 98 

helper 98 

master mechanic 98 

shop clerk 98 

store keeper 98 



RAILROADS, 



See Mercantile Traffic. 



RETAIL SALESMEN, 

display work 316 

number of salespersons employed 310 

special work 317 



596 Index 

RETAIL STORES. 

See Mercantile Sales. page 

})()ok and stationery 353 

salesperson 3r)4 

ojgar and tobacco store 324 

salesman 324 

soda fountain clerk 325 

confectionery 320 

salesman 320 

department store 325 

drug store 322 

pharmacist 322 

salesman 323 

soda fountain clerk 322 

dry goods, notions and furnishing stores 325 

five and ten cent store 340 

facts common to all workers 341 

salesperson 341 

stock man 342 

florist's shop 351 

salesman 351 

furniture store 343 

facts common to all workers 343 

repairmen 347 

special workers 346 

grocery store 312 

hardware store 355 

facts common to all workers 356 

salesman 357 

jewelry store 349 

salesman 349 

meat shop 318 

salesman 318 

men's furnishings 334 

salesman 335 

millinery store 336 

facts common to all workers ,. 338 

hat maker 339 

head trimmer 338 

salesperson 340 

shoe store 331 

salesman 331 

typo of stores 310 

RICHMOND, 

commercial center 17 

educational center 18 

general characteristics 15 

uianufacturiug center 18 

newspapers 20 



Index fiOT 

RICHMOND— Continued. page 

population 15 

composition of 16, 17 

schools, evolution of 3 

RICHMOND INDUSTRIES, 

emplo3''ees, age groups 24, 28 

age leaving school 26, 32 

conjugal condition 25, 29 

courses taken since leaving school 26, 37 

education 25, 30, 31 

hours of work 26, 33 

other occupations followed 26, 36 

place of birth 24, 27 

wages 26, 34 

years of experience 26, 35 

importance of 23 

industrial employment 24 

ROLLER SKATES, 

manufacture of 103 

S 
SALESMEN, 

constant factors in salesmanship 365 

suggestions for training for salesmanship 366 

training for salesmanship 363 

variable factors in salesmanship 364 

SALESMEN AND SALESPERSONS, 

See Retail Salesmen. 

STORES, 

See Retail Stores. 

SURVEY, 

agi-eement to make 5 

general method 7 

methods and forms used 569 

organization of 4 

personnel 9-13 

procedure 8 

purpose 7 

reasons for ! 3 

T 
TELEPHONE SERVICE, 

chief operator 378 

facts common to all workers 370 

farm operator 374 

night operator 377 



598 Index 

TELEPHONE SERVICE— Continued. page 

Survey Committee Recommendations 383 

toll department 371 

facts common to all toll operators 372 

toll line operator 375 

toll recording operator 375 

trouble clerk 379 

TEXTILE MANUFACTURING, 

facts common to all workers 200 

occupations and number employed 199 

Survey Committee Recommendations 230 

underwear industry 193 

TEXTILE WORKERS, 

bundler 229 

folder 226 

foreman knitting department 203 

marking and cutting department 206 

spooling department 201 

forewoman sewing 213 

inspector 225 

knife cutter 209 

knitting machine operator 204 

labeler 230 

markers 206 

presser 226 

sewing machine operators 214-225 

spooling machine operator 202 

spreaders 208 

TRACK DERAILERS, 

manufacture of ,^ 101 

TRANSPORTATION, 

See Mercantile Traffic. 

TRUCKS, 

manufacture of 10^ 

V 

VENTILATING APPAi^ATUS, 

manufacture of 103 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

elementary schools 507 

high school ^15 

night school ^^ 

present provisions 507 

Survev Committee Recommendations 545 



Index §99 

W PAGE 

WHOLESALE STORES AND JOBBERS, 

dry goods 358 

salesmen 359 

hardware 355 

salesmen 355, 358 

WIRE FENCE MANUFACTURING, 

checker 63 

craneman 64 

electric welder . 62 

foreman, warehouse 65 

weaving department 59 

industrj^ in Richmond 53 

inspector 62 

helper 63 

laborer 63 

loom operator 60 

helper 61 

machinist 61 

occupations and number employed 57 

sealer 64 

stockkeeper 65 

Survey Committee Recommendations 65 

value of production 53 

WORKINGMEN'S WEAR INDUSTRY, 

See Glove Workers; Textile Workers. 

products and characteristics , 197 



